SIRIUS project. III. Star-by-star simulations of star cluster formation using a direct N -body integrator with stellar feedback

Abstract

Abstract One of the computational challenges of cluster formation simulations is resolving individual stars and simulating massive clusters with masses of more than 104 M⊙ without gravitational softening. Combining a direct N-body code with smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) code, we have developed a new code, ASURA+BRIDGE, in which we can integrate stellar particles without softening. We add a feedback model for H ii regions into this code, in which thermal and momentum feedback is given within the Strömgren radius. We perform N-body/SPH simulations of star cluster formation. Without softening, a portion of massive stars are ejected from the forming clusters. As a result, the stellar feedback works outside the clusters. This enhances/suppresses the star formation in initially sub-virial/super-virial clouds. We find that the formed star clusters are denser than currently observed open clusters, but the mass–density relation is consistent with or even higher than that which is estimated as an initial cluster density. We also find that some clusters have multiple peaks in their stellar age distribution as a consequence of their hierarchical formation. Irrespective of the virial ratio of molecular clouds, approximately one-third of stars remain in the star clusters after gas expulsion.