Sintering Trajectories: Description on How Density, Surface Area, and Grain Size Change

Abstract

Sintering is a mainstay production step in forming metal, ceramic, polymer, and composite components from particles. Since the 1940s, the sintering process is treated using a matrix of mathematical relationships that include at least seven atomic transport mechanisms, several options on powder characteristics, and three pore–grain morphology options. The interplay of these relationships is handled by numerical solutions to predict property development. An alternative approach is to track the sintering trajectory using relatively simple relationships based on bulk measures. Energy minimization dictates that initial stage sintering acts to reduce surface area. In late stage sintering, the energy minimization turns to grain boundary area reduction via grain growth. Accordingly, relationships result between density, surface area, and grain size, which largely ignore mechanistic details. These relationships are applicable to a wide variety of materials and consolidation conditions, including hot pressing, and spark sintering.