Simultaneous focused ultrasound solid–liquid extraction and dispersive solid-phase extraction clean-up for gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in crustacean gammarids meeting the requirements of the European Union Water Framework Directive

Abstract

The study presents the development and validation of a method for the determination of seven priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, including fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene, for which the EU has set environmental quality standards, EQS, for biota) in gammarid samples combining focused ultrasound solid–liquid extraction and dispersive solid-phase extraction clean-up in one step followed by gas chromatography–triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (GC–QqQ-MS/MS). The method is designed to analyse small about 100 mg dry weight (dw) samples obtained after lyophilisation of 500 mg wet weight (ww) samples. The sample preparation procedure is simple, environment friendly (method was classified as “an excellent green analysis” according to the analytical Eco-Scale assessment), non-laborious and low-cost and, apart from the sample extract concentration step, is quick. Thorough disintegration of the gammarids is achieved by a combination of sonication and the addition of granular anhydrous Na2SO4 to the gammarid suspension, thus avoiding the need to grind the sample prior to analysis. The QqQ-MS/MS detector, thanks to its excellent selectivity and sensitivity, allows to meet the EQS requirements for PAHs in biota with a good margin (limits of quantification in the range of 0.12 and 0.56 ng g‒1 ww). The method has been successfully validated (in terms of linearity, method limits, precision, trueness, robustness, measurement uncertainty and comparative analysis of real samples), and has been shown to be suitable for monitoring and evaluating the PAHs contamination in surface water biota.