Abstract
Theoretical ionograms in the presence of a replacement layer and an ionospheric trough are calculated using the ray tracing method. A versatile ionospheric model is applied. Two examples are given where the traces in the ionogram produced by oblique reflections at a horizontal electron density gradient show anomalous behaviour. In one case the high frequency part and in the other case the low frequency part of such an obliquely reflected trace is missing, although no absorption is assumed. The phenomenon is explained in terms of ionospheric geometry. The effect of the distance between the transmitter and the trough on an ionogram is studied, and the appearance of three or four first hop traces is found possible.
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