Shi‘a, Tribalism and the Iraqi state: the ethno-religious dimension

Abstract

ABSTRACT This essay delves into the intricate interplay between Shi‘a Islam, tribalism, and the Iraqi regime during the 1990s, with a specific focus on the influential figure of Muḥammad Ṣādiq al-Ṣadr. Al-Ṣadr epitomized a compelling case of second-tier scholars who successfully engaged segments of society overlooked by the clerical leadership, recognizing the multifaceted composition of Shi‘a society, with its urban poor, tribal roots, and growing intelligentsia. His Fiqh al-ʿAshāʾir, harmonized Islamic principles with tribal customs, facilitating dialogue with this traditional element, deeply entrenched within Iraqi society. Ṣādiq al-Ṣadr believed that the tribes and their leadership, with their growing alienation from the state, were ready to return to Islam, seeking spiritual comfort and a sense of belonging. While tribalism as a sub-national construct has the potential to undermine the unity of a nation or a larger supra-national entity, in Iraq, tribalism also encompassed a shared Arab ethnic identity, offering a prospect for bridging divides between the Sunni and Shi‘i population. Nevertheless, for Saddam Hussein, tribalism was a tool instrumental in consolidating his power. Consequently, Ṣādiq al-Ṣadr’s endeavour to influence tribal behaviour and inculcate an ethno-religious notion of tribalism presented a direct challenge to Saddam’s autocratic rule and his manipulation of state ideology.