Abstract
The treatment of shale oil & gas produced water is a complicated process since it contains various organic compounds and inorganic impurities. Traditional membrane processes such as reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are challenged when produced water has high salinity. Forward osmosis (FO) and membrane distillation as two emerging membrane technologies are promising for produced water treatment. This chapter will focus on reviewing FO membranes, draw solute, and hybrid processes with other membrane filtration applied to produced water treatment. The barriers to the FO processes caused by membrane fouling and reverse draw solute flux are discussed fully by comparing some FO fabrication technologies, membrane performances, and draw solute selections. The future of the FO processes for produced water treatment is by summarizing life cycle assessment and economic analyses for produced water treatment in the last decade.
Highlights
Shale oil & gas produced water (PW) is the wastewater generated from the oil and gas industry and is a significant portion of the industrial wastewater
Concentrative external concentration polarization (ECP) occurs in AL-feed solution (FS) mode and is when the FS becomes concentrated at the active layer surface as the water travel through the membrane
Caballero et al completed utilizing the life cycle assessment (LCA) method, though with different indicators and scales. They found that multi-effect evaporation with mechanical vapor recompression (MEE-MVR), was the best alternative to standard wastewater treatment in regards to the treatment of PW, with an environmental impact 21.9% lower than the single-effect evaporation with mechanical vapor recompression (SEE-MVR) technology [72]
Summary
Shale oil & gas produced water (PW) is the wastewater generated from the oil and gas industry and is a significant portion of the industrial wastewater. During the exploration and production of oil and gas, water is injected with some chemicals to cause a hydraulic fracture, and this water is trapped underground. Because of the hydrofracturing conditions, the mixed water’s characteristics and properties have been altered physically and chemically [1] These characteristics vary depending on location, time, the drilling, production, treatment processes, and the geological formation in contact with the injected water. The produced water characteristics are numerous, but the most prominent are salt, oil, naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM), organic and inorganic chemicals, metals, and various suspended and total dissolved solids [1, 2, 4]. Because of these properties, PW treatment is a very strenuous and costly process. FO offers benefits such as higher productivity, rejection of various contaminants, and lower fouling tendencies
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