Abstract
Pheromone-mediated mating disruption (MD) represents an important tool to manage insect pests in agriculture and forestry. MD relies on the release of synthetic sex pheromones from dispensers in crops, interfering with mate finding and reproduction of a pest through both competitive and non-competitive mechanisms. MD programs primarily rely upon “passive” dispensers, used at high densities per hectare (200–3000 units∙ha−1). In addition to the labor required for their application, another disadvantage of “passive” dispensers is the continuous release of pheromones, regardless of the time of day or the pest flight activity. Aerosol delivery systems can overcome the drawbacks of passive dispensers as they are applied at far lower density (2–5 units∙ha−1) and they can be programmed to release pheromones at selected time intervals when the target pest is active. However, the mode of action of aerosol dispensers is still not well understood and there are concerns of whether they are as effective as passive dispensers. This review focuses on the history of aerosol dispensers, mode of action, and effectiveness on various crops; deployment strategies; and the movement of pheromone once released. Limitations of aerosols and challenges for future research and commercial use are discussed.
Highlights
The European Commission Directives and Regulations are strongly encouraging a major reduction in pesticide use [1], with the aim of boosting the production of residue-free foods and reducing the negative impacts of pesticides on human health and the environment [2,3]
Most of these insect pests are in the order of Lepidoptera and the only two examples of pest belonging to other orders that are controlled with commercial formulation of mating disruption (MD) are the vine mealybug Planococcus ficus Signoret (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) and the California red scale
Research concerning the capture of male navel orangeworm moths, A. transitella, in female-baited traps positioned at five levels, from ground level to the canopy top, in almond orchards showed that the optimal height for the pheromone release by aerosol devices at low density (3 units·ha−1 ) would be at mid or low height in the canopy, boosting pheromone dispersion throughout the canopy [56]
Summary
The European Commission Directives and Regulations are strongly encouraging a major reduction in pesticide use [1], with the aim of boosting the production of residue-free foods and reducing the negative impacts of pesticides on human health and the environment [2,3]. With this goal, the development of effective and environmentally sustainable integrated pest management (IPM) tools and strategies to manage insect pest populations is a key challenge [4]. Competitive mechanisms relate primarily, but not necessarily exclusively, to false plume following [13,15]
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