Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities and Educational Outcomes: Examining the Contribution of Sex-Role Identification

Abstract

Sex differences in cognitive ability have been documented in psychological research for over a century, and the research area has seen considerable changes in theoretical perspectives and methodology. While males and females do not differ in general intelligence, an extensive body of literature documents sex differences in more specific cognitive tasks (for reviews see Halpern, 2000; Kimura, 2000; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). Males on average perform at a higher level on tasks that rely on visualspatial ability, and this has been linked to later gender gaps in quantitative abilities such as mathematics and science and to the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM)-related fields. Females as a group do better at tasks involving verbal and language abilities which have been linked to wide gender gaps in reading and writing, as well as the underrepresentation of men in postsecondary education. Some researchers have argued that sex differences in cognitive ability are declining in response to social changes in the roles and status of women, but methodological limitations and use of convenience samples have limited previous enquiries seeking to test that hypothesis. The aim of this course of research was twofold. Firstly, using the statistical technique of meta-analysis to examine the evidence for sex differences in visual-spatial, verbal and quantitative abilities, and - given the passage of time - whether they were declining in response to changes in the roles of men and women in society. This was addressed through a series of studies that examined: i) nationally representative samples of student testing data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in the United States, ii) cross-cultural samples of student testing data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Secondly, to determine the contribution of sex-typed personality traits and behaviours (collectively referred to as sex-role identity) to the development of individual differences in visual-spatial and verbal ability. This goal was addressed through a sequence of three experimental studies. Empirical study 1 sought to provide the most comprehensive assessment of the sex-role mediation hypothesis conducted to-date, by examining performance across a range of visual-spatial and verbal ability tasks. Subjects high in masculinity performed better on visual-spatial tasks, while subjects high in femininity performed better on verbal SEX AND SEX-ROLE DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE ABILITIES iii language tasks. Mediation analysis showed that sex-role identification acted as a mediator of the sex difference in cognitive tasks. Having found evidence for sex-role differences, Empirical Study 2 sought to test whether the observed sex-role differences reflected latent ability, or alternately the role of stereotype threat and task labelling on performance. The way in which a person appraises the testing situation (and the types of skills a task may require) can work hand in hand with sex-role conformity pressures to increase or to decrease task performance. Finally, Empirical Study 3 sought to address a limitation in the existing theoretical models for sex differences in cognitive ability, namely that males and females show different patterns of self-estimation of intellectual ability (termed the male-hubris female-humility problem). Study 3 examined the contribution of sex-role identity to self-estimated intelligence, as well as the accuracy of personal judgements of ability by administering the Cattel’s Culture Fair Test of Intelligence. Results showed that the degree of masculine identification predicted self-estimated intelligence scores. A large body of research has shown that self-appraisal of intellectual abilities and selfefficacy beliefs guide the selection of coursework in secondary and tertiary education and form an important component of career decision-making. This may explain to some degree gender-specific differences in certain fields of STEM. Collectively, the results of these studies are used to refine existing psychobiosocial models of sex differences in cognitive abilities, to explain both the differences between males and females but also within-sex variability. It suggests masculine and feminine sex-role identification is an important individual differences factor to consider, and that these shape intellectual self-image and self-efficacy beliefs.