Abstract
In this article, we explore to what extent sex and gender differences may be reproduced in the 3D bioprinting of kidneys. Sex and gender differences have been observed in kidney function, anatomy, and physiology, and play a role in kidney donation and transplantation through differences in kidney size (sex aspect) and altruism (gender aspect). As a form of personalized medicine, 3D bioprinting might be expected to eliminate sex and gender bias. On the basis of an analysis of recent literature, we conclude that personalized techniques such as 3D bioprinting of kidneys alone do not mean that sex and gender bias does not happen. Therefore, sex and gender considerations should be included into every step of developing and using 3D-bioprinted kidneys: in the choice of design, cells, biomaterials, and X-chromosome-activated cells.
Highlights
PERSONALIZED MEDICINE (PM) ENVISIONS ‘‘personalized health care solutions’’ with the aim to achieve optimal patient outcomes, the highest safety margin, and the lowest possible costs.[1,2,3,4] Core tenet of PM is the consideration of individuals’ unique genetic makeup in interaction with the external environment, which enables timely diagnoses, tailored risk assessments, and optimal treatments.[2]
In this article, we explore to what extent sex and gender differences may be reproduced in the 3D bioprinting of kidneys
If gender bias is reproduced in PM techniques such as 3D bioprinting, the potential broad uptake of 3D bioprinting of kidneys means that a large group of people might be exposed to the negative consequences
Summary
Sex and Gender Bias in Kidney Transplantation: 3D Bioprinting as a Challenge to Personalized Medicine. Manon van Daal,[1] Maaike E. Muntinga,[1] Sandra Steffens,[2] Annemie Halsema,[3] and Petra Verdonk1,*
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