Abstract
Sensation-seeking (SS) is a personality trait that refers to individual differences in motivation for intense and unusual sensory experiences. It describes a facet of human behaviour that has direct relevance for several psychopathologies associated with high social cost. Here, we first review ways of measuring SS behaviour in both humans and animals. We then present convergent evidence that implicates dopaminergic neurotransmission (particularly via D2-type receptors) in individual differences in SS trait. Both high tonic dopamine levels and hyper-reactive midbrain dopaminergic responses to signals of forthcoming reward are evident in higher sensations-seekers. We propose that differences in the efficacy of striatal dopaminergic transmission may result in differential expression of approach-avoidance reactions to same intensity stimuli. This constitutes a quantitative trait of intensity preference for sensory stimulation that may underlie core features of the SS personality. We review the evidence that high trait SS is a vulnerability factor for psychopathologies related to changes in brain dopamine function, in particular substance and gambling addictions. Conversely, we consider the possibility that increased tolerance of high intensity stimulation may represent a protective mechanism against the development of trauma-related psychopathologies (e.g. post-traumatic stress disorder) in high sensation-seeking individuals.Further understanding of the brain mechanisms underlying SS trait might not only to shed light on the aetiology of these disorders, but also aid in developing individualised therapies and prevention strategies for psychopathologies.
Highlights
Is there a hedonic drive to seek out ‘sensations’, above and beyond more traditionally conceived rewards? For example, what is it that motivates some people to devote large amounts of time, money, and effort in search of such – often fleeting – experiences as sky-diving, a rollercoaster ride, the thrill of fast driving or really spicy food?Sensation-seeking (SS) has been described as “a trait defined by the need for varied, novel, complex and intense sensations and experiences, and willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experiences” [1,2]
A combination of high dopaminergic tone and a lower density of D2-type receptors in the striatum appear to be potentially important contributors to higher SS trait—as reflected in an increased tendency to exhibit approach reactions towards intense and novel stimuli that may elicit aversive reactions in others [36,57,64,66,68,69,94,100]. This kind of neurobiological signature may constitute a vulnerability to the development of addictions when ‘revealed’ by the addition of drugs which increase striatal DA levels, both in the case of recreational substances and prescription drugs that directly target D2-type receptors
The exact contribution of trait SS to the aetiology of these disorders is often difficult to parse out in human studies, and will be aided by development of analogous paradigms to the animal literature–a strategy which has previously proved fruitful with respect to increasing our understanding of other kinds of impulsive behaviour [159,217]
Summary
Is there a hedonic drive to seek out ‘sensations’, above and beyond more traditionally conceived rewards? For example, what is it that motivates some people to devote large amounts of time, money, and effort in search of such – often fleeting – experiences as sky-diving, a rollercoaster ride, the thrill of fast driving or really spicy food?. It has been shown that degree of engagement in various SS activities ( licit and illicit recreational drug consumption, risky driving or sexual behaviours) covaries in both adults and adolescents [4,5,6,7,8] The study of this intriguing individual difference can be traced back from mid-century homeostatic theories regarding optimal levels of sensory stimulation [9] through to the rise of personality psychology in the 1970s [1,2]. This review first discusses insights into differences in neurobiology underlying differences in SS behaviour derived from studies in both humans and animal models, with respect to midbrain dopamine systems Evidence for how these differences might relate to differential risk for addictive and gambling disorders is considered, as well as the role high SS may play in more functionally adaptive behaviour involving exploration and stress resiliency. We briefly touch upon the importance of considering individual differences such as SS in personalising both treatment and targeted intervention programmes for relevant psychopathologies
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