Abstract
Plant pathogens challenge our efforts to maximize crop production due to their ability to rapidly develop resistance to pesticides. Fungal biocontrol agents have become an important alternative to chemical fungicides, due to environmental concerns related to the latter. Here we review the complex modes of action of biocontrol agents in general and epiphytic yeasts belonging to the genus Pseudozyma specifically and P. aphidis in particular. Biocontrol agents act through multiple direct and indirect mechanisms, which are mainly based on their secretions. We discuss the direct modes of action, such as antibiosis, reactive oxygen species-producing, and cell wall-degrading enzyme secretions which can also play a role in mycoparasitism. In addition, we discuss indirect modes of action, such as hyperbiotrophy, induced resistance and growth promotion based on the secretion of effectors and elicitors from the biocontrol agent. Due to their unique characteristics, epiphytic yeasts hold great potential for use as biocontrol agents, which may be more environmentally friendly than conventional pesticides and provide a way to reduce our dependency on fungicides based on increasingly expensive fossil fuels. No less important, the complex mode of action of Pseudozyma-based biocontrol agents can also reduce the frequency of resistance developed by pathogens to these agents.
Highlights
This review summarizes the known modes of secreted molecules and proteins that can act as antibiotics, effectors, elicitors and degrading action of the epiphytic yeast Biological control agents (BCAs) in general, and Pseudozyma aphidis in particular, with a enzymes (Figure 1)
Along with the rapid development of pathogen resistance to widely used pesticides, call for enhancing the use of BCAs and biopesticides developed from their secretions in the long term, for the benefit of the consumer and the growers
Most biocontrol modes of action are mediated by their secretion-based fraction, which can include metabolites and proteins with different functions—from antibiotics through effectors—and enzymes that can affect or interact with the pathogen and/or the plant host
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cides) are good alternatives to the use of traditional synthetic chemicals as they are less since BCAs can hinder pathogen growth and development, thereby reducing diseases, via harmful to both the environment and human health [18,19,20,21]. The complex modes of action of BCAs are exploration and exploitation of naturally occurring microorganisms, such as fungi, for the mainly directed by secreted molecules and proteins that can act as antibiotics, effectors, control of crop diseases [24]. This review summarizes the known modes of action of the epiphytic focus on our ability to define the functions of their secretions and possible uses for fungal yeast BCAs in general, and Pseudozyma aphidis in particular, with a focus on our ability to pathogen control.
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