Abstract
Groundwater quality and geochemical processes were investigated in the endemic areas of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. Representative groundwater samples (n = 60) were collected from 30 dug wells located in the Anuradhapura district, over the dry and wet seasons. The samples were analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, major cations and major anions. Calcium-magnesium-bicarbonate ion combinations are predominant in this groundwater, and the simultaneous occurrence of high hardness (382–394 mg/L as CaCO3), alkalinity (364–379 mg/L as CaCO3) and ionicity is a salient characteristic. Alkalinity, TDS, hardness, and magnesium exceeded the safe limits for drinking in over half of the samples, regardless of the season. The major ion chemistry (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and HCO3−) is primarily governed by the weathering of carbonate and silicate minerals, ion exchange, and evaporation which is accelerated by the semi-arid climate. Fluoride and chloride inputs are regulated by dissolution of fluoride-bearing minerals and anthropogenic causes, respectively. Saturation indices suggested supersaturation of carbonates and silicates, and undersaturation of evaporites and fluorite. Persistent high ionicity, and hardness of groundwater that is seldom impacted by seasonal variations might be playing a vital role in the genesis of CKDu.
Highlights
Accepted: 22 November 2021Groundwater has been an invaluable and indispensable natural resource for the sustenance of human life across the world, over the years
This study was conducted in Anuradhapura District of the North Central Province (NCP), which is considered to be the hotspot of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka
The compliance of groundwater quality for drinking was assessed with the maximum allowable levels (MALs) specified under Sri Lanka Standards for potable water i.e., SLS 614: 2013 (Table 1), and where applicable, with World Health Organization (WHO) drinking water guidelines [40,41]
Summary
Accepted: 22 November 2021Groundwater has been an invaluable and indispensable natural resource for the sustenance of human life across the world, over the years. The ever-increasing demand for groundwater, compelled by the rapid growth of population and industries, and the subsequent over-exploitation puts unprecedented stress on limited groundwater resources This has given rise to numerous environmental, social and health issues, including the degradation of water quality and spread of waterborne diseases [2,3]. There are ample examples to showcase that groundwater geochemistry is strongly linked with the health of the local population in a particular terrain. Such cases are commonly reported from less-developed, tropical-arid and semi-arid regions of the world, where groundwater is the primary source of drinking water [2,5]. High fluoride in groundwater critically affects the dental and skeletal health of over 60 million people in India, and Published: 26 November 2021
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