Abstract
Carbofuran is one of the most commonly used N-methylcarbamate-based pesticides and is excellent for controlling pests; however, carbofuran also causes soil and water pollution. Although various studies have been conducted on the bioremediation of pesticide-contaminated soil, the changes occurring in the metabolome during the bioremediation of carbofuran are not fully understood. In this study, the intracellular and extracellular metabolites of the Chryseobacterium sp. BSC2-3 strain were analysed during carbofuran degradation by using a liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry-based metabolomics approach. We found that the BSC2-3 strain extracellularly transformed carbofuran into 3-hydroxycarbofuran. Intracellular metabolite analysis revealed that carbofuran mainly affected aminobenzoate degradation, ubiquinone and terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis, and arginine and proline metabolism. Carbofuran especially affected the metabolic pathway for the degradation of naphthalene and aminobenzoate. Metabolomics additionally revealed that the strain produces disease resistance inducers and plant growth regulators. We also identified the genes involved in the production of indole-3-acetic acid, which is one of the most active auxins. Overall, we identified the metabolic changes induced in carbofuran-degrading bacteria and the genes predicted to be responsible for the degradation of carbofuran.
Highlights
Pesticides have been used to control pests in agriculture and have contributed to human society by greatly enhancing agricultural outcomes [1–3]
Five soil samples were prepared from an agricultural field that had been contaminated with various pesticides and insecticides for years, and a minimal salt medium (MSM) without carbon, nitrogen and sulfur sources was used for the enrichment culture
Among the five soil samples used for the enrichment culture, the sample in which the growth of the bacteria was confirmed in the third subculture medium was diluted and spread on an MSM plate, to which 100 ppm carbofuran was added
Summary
Pesticides have been used to control pests in agriculture and have contributed to human society by greatly enhancing agricultural outcomes [1–3]. A number of pesticides have been used widely and with great effectiveness [4]. Carbofuran has become one of the dominant insecticides used in agriculture due to its ability to control a wide range of pests [6]. Carbofuran is known as a powerful inhibitor of acetyl-cholinesterase and possesses serious toxicity, producing negative health effects for wild animals and humans and poisoning rivers and groundwater [7–9]. Due to its potential negative effects, the usage of carbofuran requires thorough monitoring, and its degradation from the environment has become an important research topic
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