Abstract
Plant research and breeding has a long and successful history in the Scandinavian countries, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Researchers in the region have been early in adopting plant gene technologies as they developed. This review gives a background, as well as discuss the current and future progress of plant gene technology in these four countries. Country-specific details of the regulation of genetically modified plants are described, as well as similarities and differences in the approach to regulation of novel genome-editing techniques. Also, the development of a sustainable bioeconomy may encompass the application of plant gene technology and we discuss whether or not this is reflected in current associated national strategies. In addition, country-specific information about the opinion of the public and other stakeholders on plant gene technology is presented, together with a country-wise political comparison and a discussion of the potential reciprocal influence between public opinion and the political process of policy development. The Scandinavian region is unique in several aspects, such as climate and certain agriculturally related regulations, and at the same time the region is vulnerable to changes in plant breeding investments due to the relatively small market sizes. It is therefore important to discuss the role and regulation of innovative solutions in Scandinavian plant research and breeding.
Highlights
Since the development of recombinant nucleic acid technology and genetic transformation technology in the 1970s, resulting in the first genetically modified (GM)plant in 1983 (Barton et al 1983, Herrera-Estrella et al 1983), gene technologies have been widely applied all over the world in plant research and breeding
We find it peculiar that Sweden recently voted no to the authorisation in the European Union (EU) of two GM maize events, while referring to this particular national Environmental Objective as basis for that decision, given that these GM maize events are considered safe by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and would contribute to a reduced dependence on insecticides in maize cultivation
The Scandinavian region, situated in the European high north, is unique concerning climate, temperature and daylight, and regarding specific regulations of fertiliser and pesticide uses. Crops adapted to these conditions have been developed for many decades through the ongoing efforts of public plant breeding programmes as well as small- and medium-size breeding companies concentrating their efforts especially for these conditions (Andersen et al 2013, Nilsson et al 2016)
Summary
Since the development of recombinant nucleic acid technology and genetic transformation technology in the 1970s, resulting in the first genetically modified (GM). Abbreviations – AC, Appeal Committee; CJEU, Court of Justice of the European Union; CRISPR, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats; EC, European Commission; EEA, European Economic Area; EFSA, European Food Safety Authority; GM, genetically modified; GTA, Gene Technology Act (Norway); GTLK, Board of Gene Technology (Finland); IP, intellectual property; LRF, Federation of Swedish Farmers; NPBT, new plant breeding techniques; ODM, oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis; PAFF, Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed; PVY, potato virus Y; TALEN, transcription activator-like effector nucleases; ZFN, zinc finger nucleases. Many plant researchers and breeders in the Scandinavian countries have been early in adopting gene technologies in their work This has resulted in a large number of experimental GM plant trials both for contained use in greenhouse facilities and field release, and several platforms for the application of plant GE have been established, though there are some differences among the countries. The current GTA was in place in Norway in 1993, and the first application of deliberate release
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