Abstract
AbstractBone tissue engineering (BTE) is a rapidly growing field aiming to create a biofunctional tissue that can integrate and degrade in vivo to treat diseased or damaged tissue. It has become evident that scaffold fabrication techniques are very important in dictating the final structural, mechanical properties, and biological response of the implanted biomaterials. A comprehensive review of the current accomplishments on scaffold fabrication techniques, their structure, and function properties for BTE is provided herein. Different types of biomaterials ranging from inorganic biomaterials to natural and synthetic polymers and related composites for scaffold processing are presented. Emergent scaffolding techniques such as electrospinning, freeze‐drying, bioprinting, and decellularization are also discussed. Strategies to improve vascularization potential and immunomodulation, which is considered a grand challenge in BTE scaffolding, are also presented.
Highlights
Bone tissue engineering (BTE) is a rapidly growing field aiming to create a of interest.[4]
CaPs with MSCs highlight the main role of the host immune system for regeneration of bone.[129b]. On the other hand, βTCP seeded with macrophages presented reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines in comparison to calcium deficient HAp (CDHA) biomaterial.[130a]. Recently, scaffolding strategies comprising β-TCP functionalized with bioactive ions able to modulate the biological responses of bone have been proposed.[27d,35b,131] For instance, biocomposites made of β-TCP doped with Mn2+, Zn2+, and/ or Sr2+ in combination with SF presented biological responses according to the specific ionic dopant.[131]
Optimal fabrication methods must be capable of producing a composite scaffold, which can meet the desired tissue characteristics, which is still a challenge
Summary
Bone is a highly organized composite material comprised by 50–70% inorganic constituents (primarily hydroxyapatite (HAp)), 20–40% organic constituents (primarily type I collagen), 5–10% water, and 3% lipids.[12]. Scaffolds should allow cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, while being non-cytotoxic and evoke minimal immune response.[5] For BTE, bioactivity covers two primary biological processes: i) osteoconductivity and ii) osteoinductivity. The implanted biomaterials should provide enough mechanical stability at the time of implantation, while evoking a non-immunogenic response as the biomaterials degrade simultaneously with the growth of native tissue.[9b]The biomaterials should facilitate the proliferation and infiltration of nearby stem cells as well as osteoblast cells. Inorganic–organic composite SF/β-TCP; SF/HAp; collagen/BCP Mechanical properties enhancement, high cell attachment and proliferation, increased [35]. The most promising inorganic biomaterials, natural and synthetic polymers used in BTE are described as follows
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