Abstract
Background There is scarcity of information about the quality and safety of drinking water in Africa. Without such vital information, sustainable development goal number 6 which promotes availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation remains elusive especially in developing countries. The study aimed at determining concentrations of inorganic compounds, estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), and identify safe drinking water source sources in Southwestern Uganda. Methods This was an observational study in which 40 drinking water samples were collected from georeferenced boreholes, springs, open wells, bottled, and taps within Bushenyi district of Southwestern Uganda. Water samples were analyzed for copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr) levels using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Water safety measures (EDI, HI, and ILCR) were established for each water source and compared with local and international water permissible standards for each analyte. A spatial map was drawn using qGIS®, and analysis of quantitative data was done using MS Excel 2013 at 95% significance. Results Heavy metals were present in the following order: 11.276 ppm > 4.4623 ppm > 0.81 ppm > 0.612 ppm > 0.161 ppm for Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Cd, respectively, while Cr was not detected. Fe was the primary water heavy metal in the order of open well > borehole > tap > spring > bottled water. This was followed by Zn levels in the order of tap > bottled > spring > borehole > open well. All compounds were within international water safety standards except Pb. Hence, there is need for the government of Uganda to establish water filtration systems, particularly for Pb to improve the quality of water for the general public. The EDI was similar (P > 0.05) for water consumed from spring, bottled, and tap sources for Fe and Zn levels. Similarly, no differences were found in the EDI for children and adults (P > 0.05). Furthermore, the HI showed an absence of noncarcinogenic risk associated (HI < 1), although the ILCR was higher in adults than children (P < 0.05) due to high Cd concentrations. Conclusion The current identified Fe is a major heavy metal in drinking water of Uganda, and boreholes were the major safest sources of drinking water identified in this study.
Highlights
Access to safe drinking water is considered a universal human right by the United Nations convention [1, 2]; this human right remains a dream for several developing countries in Asia, South America, and Africa
Previous studies have placed a lot of attention on the microbial load with a focus on infectious diseases [3, 4], while little information is available regarding the heavy metal concentrations in drinking water of Uganda [5, 6]. e lack of proper water treatment and increased agrochemical use and industrial growth suggest that water contamination is ongoing and is a threat to public health [6, 7]; baseline data on the safety of drinking water in Uganda could inform mitigation measures to ensure access to safe water in Uganda [8]. is would inevitably help Uganda remain on the path for the attainment of Sustainable Developmental Goal (SDG) number six which promotes access to safe drinking water [9]
In each major trading center, 2 samples, each of 50 ml were collected into 50 ml falcon tubes using aseptic techniques from the borehole water (BHW), commercial bottled water (BotW), open well (OW), spring water (SW), and tap water (TW). e water was collected into sterile falcon tubes carefully avoiding any contamination
Summary
Access to safe drinking water is considered a universal human right by the United Nations convention [1, 2]; this human right remains a dream for several developing countries in Asia, South America, and Africa. In Kampala, the capital city of Uganda, previous studies identified high levels of heavy metals such as lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr) were detected in drinking water [10, 11] Those compounds have been isolated in natural water reservoirs including lakes [12, 13], wetlands [12], fish [14, 15], and beef and milk [16]. Pb is present in petrol, paints, and water pipes and in soils within our environment [17] It is medically used in X-ray shielding; information on effective waste management of Pb in Africa is limited to date, it continues to be a global water contaminant [18,19,20]. Cr is effectively removed by coagulation-filtration on a large scale, while adsorptive filtration and ion exchange are appropriate for large-and small-scale applications [36]
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Free) 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a call
