Abstract
MXenes, representing a new class of two-dimensional nanomaterial, have attracted intense interest in a variety of fields as supercapacitors, catalysts, and sensors, and in biomedicine. The assessment of the safety of MXenes and related materials in biological systems is thus an issue that requires significant attention. In this review, the toxic effects of MXenes and their derivatives are summarized through the discussion of current research into their behaviors in mammalian cells, animals and plants. Numerous studies have shown that MXenes have generally low cytotoxicity and good biocompatibility. However, a few studies have indicated that MXenes are toxic to stem cells and embryos. These in vitro and in vivo toxic effects are strongly associated with the dose of material, the cell type, the mode of exposure, and the specific type of MXene. In addition, surface modifications alter the toxic effects of MXenes. The stability of MXenes must be considered during toxicity evaluation, as degradation can lead to potentially toxic byproducts. Although research concerning the toxicity of MXenes is limited, this review provides an overview of the current understanding of interactions of MXenes with biological systems and suggests future research directions.
Highlights
Introduction and In VivoNanomaterials 2022, 12, Due to the remarkable properties of graphene, two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted extensive scientific and engineering interest
MXenes are represented by the general chemical formula Mn+1 Xn Tx, in which M represents an early transition metal (e.g., Ti, V, Sc, Nb, Zr, Mo, Hf, or Ta), X is C and/or N, n = 1 to 6, and Tx stands for the surface termination groups
Understanding the fundamental interactions between MXenes and biological systems and the toxic effects of MXenes in vitro and in vivo are of utmost importance for further development of MXene-based nanomedicines
Summary
Among the multiple bottom-up and top-down approaches to MXene synthesis, etching of A-element layers from the MAX phase is the most popular strategy (Figure 1) [1,26,27]. In this process, the MAX phase powder is stirred in aqueous hydrofluoric acid (HF), and after an appropriate amount of time, the solid is separated from the supernatant by centrifugation or filtration. Runaway reactions, and toxic chemical exposure are the most important potentially hazardous factors in MXene synthesis (Figure 2) [28]. In MAX phase synthesis, hazards associated with dust production are present in both reactant handling and postsynthesis processing procedures. A significant hazard exists in the process of etching the Al layer in the MAX phase.
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