Abstract
Vitamin A (all-trans-retinol), its active derivatives retinal and retinoic acid, and their synthetic analogues constitute the group of retinoids. It is obtained from diet either as preformed vitamin A or as carotenoids. Retinal plays a biological role in vision, but most of the effects of vitamin A are exerted by retinoic acid, which binds to nuclear receptors and regulates gene transcription. Vitamin A deficiency is an important nutritional problem, particularly in the developing world. Retinol and carotenoids from diet during pregnancy and lactation influence their concentration in breast milk, which is important in the long term, not only for the offspring, but also for maternal health. In this study, we review the role of vitamin A in mammary gland metabolism, where retinoid signaling is required not only for morphogenesis and development of the gland and for adequate milk production, but also during the weaning process, when epithelial cell death is coupled with tissue remodeling.
Highlights
Vitamin A, an isoprenic-derived micronutrient, strictly refers to the alcoholic form all-trans-retinol, in a broad sense includes both its active derivatives as well as other synthetic analogues that exhibit its biological actions
We review the role of vitamin A in mammary gland metabolism, where retinoid signaling is required for morphogenesis and development of the gland and for adequate milk production, and during the weaning process, when epithelial cell death is coupled with tissue remodeling
This review focuses on the role of vitamin A in the mammary gland along each developmental stage
Summary
Vitamin A, an isoprenic-derived micronutrient, strictly refers to the alcoholic form all-trans-retinol, in a broad sense includes both its active derivatives as well as other synthetic analogues that exhibit its biological actions. Retinol is a liposoluble micronutrient essential in our diet It is available in foods either as preformed vitamin A; as retinyl ester (RE), abundant in some animal-derived sources such as liver, eggs, dairy products, and fatty fish; or as provitamin A carotenoids, mainly β-carotene, abundant in dark colored fruits and vegetables such as green leaves, carrots, ripe mangos, and other orange–yellow vegetables. It is important to consider for all groups of populations that several factors can influence the bioavailability of vitamin A from the diet, including the presence and severity of infections and parasites, intestinal or liver disease, iron and zinc status, xenobiotics, levels of dietary fat, protein malnutrition, alcohol intake, dietary source (preformed or provitamin A carotenoids), and food processing [11,16,31,35,37,38,39,40]. The maximum daily amount of β-carotene that the adult intestine can cleave is approximately 2.5 mg, and the minimum amount of fat required for optimal absorption of carotenoids is about 3–5 g per meal [31,34,41,45]
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