Abstract
In mountainous regions, climate change threatens cryospheric water resources, and understanding all components of the hydrological cycle is necessary for effective water resource management. Rock glaciers are climatically more resilient than glaciers and contain potentially hydrologically valuable ice volumes, and yet have received less attention, even though rock glacier hydrological importance may increase under future climate warming. In synthesising data from a range of global studies, we provide the first comprehensive evaluation of the hydrological role played by rock glaciers. We evaluate hydrological significance over a range of temporal and spatial scales, alongside the complex multiple hydrological processes with which rock glaciers can interact diurnally, seasonally, annually, decadally and both at local and regional extents. We report that although no global-extent, complete inventory for rock glaciers exists currently, recent research efforts have greatly elaborated spatial coverage. Using these research papers, we synthesise information on rock glacier spatial distribution, morphometric characteristics, surface and subsurface features, ice-storage and hydrological flow dynamics, water chemistry, and future resilience, from which we provide the first comprehensive evaluation of their hydrological contribution. We identify and discuss long-, intermediate- and short-term timescales for rock glacier storage, allowing a more balanced assessment of the contrasting perspectives regarding the relative significance of rock glacier-derived hydrological contributions compared to other water sources. We show that further empirical observations are required to gain a deeper hydrological understanding of rock glaciers, in terms of (i) their genesis and geomorphological dynamics (ii) total ice/water volume; (iii) water discharge; and (iv) water quality. Lastly, we hypothesise that at decadal and longer timescales, under future climate warming, degradation of ice within rock glaciers may represent an increasing hydrological contribution to downstream regions, and thus increased hydrological significance while rock glacier water stores persist.
Highlights
Glacierised high mountain systems worldwide form natural ‘water towers’ that constitute a significant freshwater source for downstream regions, in arid and semiarid zones (Messerli et al, 2004; Viviroli et al, 2007)
Monnier and Kinnard, 2015b; Section 2.2) where defining the divide between rock glaciers and debris-covered glaciers can prove challenging, especially where rock glaciers are not welldeveloped (e.g., Mölg et al, 2018). These ongoing glacierrock glacier interactions are commonly not included in either glacier, e.g., the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI) (Pfeffer et al, 2014) or GLIMS, or rock glacier inventories in spite of their potential future hydrological value and we argue their inclusion is of critical importance
Krainer et al (2007) report that rock glacier discharge in the Stubai and Ötztal Alps, Austria, exhibits: (i) intermediate δ18O values at the beginning of the melt season, reflecting the mixed origin of runoff from re-frozen meltwater from the preceding autumn and snowmelt; (ii) significantly reduced δ18O and electrical conductivity sampling (EC) values following the onset of spring discharge, with runoff predominantly derived from snowmelt; and (iii) gradually increasing δ18O and EC values during the melt season, which reflect the continued depletion of the winter snowpack and increased icemelt and groundwater contributions
Summary
The version presented here may differ from the published version. If citing, you are advised to consult the published version for pagination, volume/issue and date of publication. Competing interests statement: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest
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