Abstract
Robots are increasingly being used to assist with various tasks ranging from industrial manufacturing to welfare services. This study analysed how robot acceptance at work (RAW) varies between individual and national attributes in EU 27. Eurobarometer surveys collected in 2012 (n = 26,751) and 2014 (n = 27,801) were used as data. Background factors also included country-specific data drawn from the World Bank DataBank. The study is guided by the technology acceptance model and change readiness perspective explaining robot acceptance in terms of individual and cultural attributes. Multilevel studies analysing cultural differences in technological change are exceptionally rare. The multilevel analysis of RAW performed herein accounted for individual and national factors using fixed and random intercepts in a nested data structure. Individual-level factors explained RAW better than national-level factors. Particularly, personal experiences with robots at work or elsewhere were associated with higher acceptance. At a national level, the technology orientation of the country explained RAW better than the relative risk of jobs being automated. Despite the countries’ differences, personal characteristics and experiences with robots are decisive for RAW. Experiences, however, are better enabled in countries open to innovations. The findings are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms through which the technological orientation and social acceptance of robots may be related.
Highlights
For 60 years, industrial robots have gained traction in assembly lines, from precise manufacturing to automotive and food industries [1, p. 1]
In the European Union (EU), Germany stands out as the country with the most industrial robots, the frequency of service robots is more widespread among European countries [2]
The technology acceptance model (TAM) seeks to understand how users both accept and start to use technology [17]. It is grounded in the theory of reasoned action (TRA), set out in Fishbein and Ajzen [18], and its extension, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), found in Ajzen [19]
Summary
For 60 years, industrial robots have gained traction in assembly lines, from precise manufacturing to automotive and food industries [1, p. 1]. A basic principle holds that automation offers its best productivity gains when robots replace human work in high-wage countries [6]. Human labour is replaced by automation, but technology is seen as creating a new kind of work, especially in low-end and high-end skills [7,8,9,10]. The TAM seeks to understand how users both accept and start to use technology [17] It is grounded in the theory of reasoned action (TRA), set out in Fishbein and Ajzen [18], and its extension, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), found in Ajzen [19]. The TAM and its modifications have been widely used to predict the perceived usefulness and usage intentions of technology by individual factors, such as previous experiences and social factors, including subjective norms [22]
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