Abstract
A D-grade type coal was burned under simulated domestic practices in a controlled laboratory set-up, in order to characterize the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs); namely, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX). Near-field concentrations were collected in a shack-like structure constructed using corrugated iron, simulating a traditional house found in informal settlements in South Africa (SA). Measurements were carried out using the Synspec Spectras GC955 real-time monitor over a three-hour burn cycle. The 3-h average concentrations (in µg/m3) of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene, and o-xylene were 919 ± 44, 2051 ± 91, 3838 ±19, 4245 ± 41 and 3576 ± 49, respectively. The cancer risk for adult males and females in a typical SA household exposure scenario was found to be 1.1 and 1.2 respectively, which are 110- and 120-fold higher than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated risk severity indicator (1 × 10−6). All four TEX (toluene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene and o-xylene) compounds recorded a Hazard Quotient (HQ) of less than 1, indicating a low risk of developing related non-carcinogenic health effects. The HQ for TEX ranged from 0.001 to 0.05, with toluene concentrations being the lowest, and ethylbenzene the highest. This study has demonstrated that domestic coal burning may be a significant source of BTEX emission exposure.
Highlights
The introduction of several chemicals into the atmosphere has been widely associated with increased health risks [1,2]
The determination of risks associated with BTEX were achieved when using the cancer risk for the carcinogenic compound, while the non-carcinogenic effects of TEX were determined by calculating the hazard quotient, as shown in Equations (5) and (6), respectively
The results presented in our study indicate that there is a lower probability of non-carcinogenic health effects as a result of exposure to domestic coal combustion technology, as described in this study
Summary
The introduction of several chemicals into the atmosphere has been widely associated with increased health risks [1,2]. Anthropogenic sources of higher exposure to air pollutants are suggested to be attributed to industrial activities [3,4]. Several studies have been conducted globally, investigating the emissions of larger industrial activities such as power generation on the external environment [5,6]. The mechanisms as to how pollutants are emitted and distributed are well understood, especially on larger stationary sources in developed countries and parts of developing Asia. There is a growing concern regarding pollutant inventories in order to understand the major sources of emissions and their impacts [7]. There is an emerging body of knowledge which
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