Revolutionary Change, Soviet Intervention, and "Normalization" in East-Central Europe

Abstract

The Hungarian of 1956, the Prague Spring of 1968, and the Polish crises of 1956 and 1980-1981 have been the most traumatic events for the Soviets in eastern Europe since the Soviet-Yugoslav break of 1948. When examined in a comparative perspective these crises provide a unique opportunity to analyze revolutionary change in the region; the Soviet response in the form of military intervention, both direct and indirect; and so-called normalization, the long-term process whereby the Soviets seek a reversal of revolutionary change. These three theoretical concepts, which will be carefully defined, provide the framework herein for comparing each case study with the others. Revolution as used here corresponds to the Aristotelean metabole or change of a systemic nature. Walter Laqueur cogently defined revolution as attempt to make a radical change in the system of the government. This often involves ... the use of force, but not of necessity. Revolution may also mean any fundamentally new development in the economy, culture or social fabric ... . As such, is distinguishable from coup d'Itat or revolt. The revolutionary upheavals in eastern Europe after World War II conform to Laqueur's broad definition in that they expressed the desire to bring about, through violent and/or peaceful methods, profound and fundamental changes in a society's dominant values and politico-economic structures. In the Communist countries of east-central Europe, the revolutions which have occurred in twelve-year cycles since 1956 assumed both violent and non-violent modes. Accordingly, Soviet writers distinguish between violent or counterrevolution and nonviolent or creeping counterrevolution. The revolutions in eastern Europe might have succeeded in bringing about fundamental and profound changes were they not halted by intervention conducted or sponsored by the USSR. Intervention is usually defined in the language of international politics as an act which involves force. According to Percy Winfield, it occurs when one state interferes by force or the threat of force in the affairs of another state.2 Soviet interventions in eastern Europe have involved the direct as well as indirect use of military force. A direct intervention is the massive deployment of Soviet armed forces either alone or in the company of allied WTO (Warsaw Treaty Organization) forces with the clear purpose of occupying a country and reversing revolutionary change (Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968). Indirect intervention refers to the deployment of Soviet and WTO forces on the borders of and within another WTO country, to elicit fear and to pressure the leadership of the country into initiating the same process of reversal on its own, short of occupation