Reversible crowdedness of pH-responsive and host–guest active polymersomes: Mimicking µm-sized cell structures

Abstract

The structure–function characteristics of isolated artificial organelles (AOs) in protocells are mainly known, but there are few reports on clustered or aggregated AOs. To imitate µm-sized complex and heterogeneous cell structures, approaches are needed that enable reversible changes in the aggregation state of colloidal structures in response to chemical, biological, and external stimuli. To construct adaptive organelle-like or cell-like reorganization characteristics, we present an advanced crosslinking strategy to fabricate clustered polymersomes as a platform based on host–guest interactions between azobenzene-containing polymersomes (Azo-Psomes) and a β-cyclodextrin-modified polymer (β-CD polymer) as a crosslinker. First, the reversible (dis)assembly of clustered Azo-Psomes is carried out by the alternating input of crosslinker and adamantane-PEG3000 as a decrosslinker. Moreover, cluster size dependence is demonstrated by environmental pH. These offer the controlled fabrication of various homogeneous and heterogeneous Azo-Psomes structures, including the size regulation and visualization of clustered AOs through a fluorescent enzymatic cascade reaction. Finally, a temperature-sensitive crosslinking agent with β-CD units can promote the coaggregation of Azo-Psomes mediated by temperature changes. Overall, these (co–)clustered Azo-Psomes and their successful transformation in AOs may provide new features for modelling biological systems for eukaryotic cells and systems biology.