Rethinking marginalization and heritage language vitality in multilingual families

Abstract

Aims and objectives: In the context of the complicated minority–majority language reality in Malaysia, this study seeks to address the issue of heritage language (HL) vitality among multilingual Hakka families in East Malaysia. It draws attention to powerful/dominant language(s) and to the idea that marginalization could be an important factor in language vitality. Design/methodology: The study was conducted through semistructured interviews with 52 Hakka families from 2 selected Hakka communities (Bau and Menggatal) in East Malaysia. Data and analysis: This study adopted the family language policy (FLP) approach and the frame analysis perspectives. Based on the data collected through interviews, three frames were developed, that is, the frames of choice/choiceless, security/insecurity, and power/powerless. Findings/conclusion: Families may not always have a ‘genuine choice’ or agency without ‘impositions’ in deciding the family language(s) and the language(s) that they wish to preserve and transmit due to their socioeconomic ‘needs’. Choiceless-, insecurity-, and powerlessness-focused frames reveal the deeper struggles and challenges that surface in the Hakkas’ attempts to comply with and negotiate in relation to dominant discourses in a wider multilingual context that, paradoxically, does not truly embrace small languages and multilingualism. Originality: By drawing attention to a very different perspective, that is, the role of marginalization in HL vitality, this study shows how and why the marginalization of HL matters in influencing FLPs and the maintenance or shift of HLs. Significance/implications: The theoretical development of language vitality or shift is worth reconsidering given that existing theories or models may not be well suited to lesser-known cultures and small languages. This study thus enriches the compatibility of existing theories with less-studied communities.