Abstract
BackgroundRecent literatures indicate that maternal hormone exposure is a risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We hypothesize that prenatal progestin exposure may counteract the neuroprotective effect of estrogen and contribute to ASD development, and we aim to develop a method to ameliorate prenatal progestin exposure-induced autism-like behavior.MethodsExperiment 1: Prenatal progestin exposure-induced offspring are treated with resveratrol (RSV) through either prenatal or postnatal exposure and then used for autism-like behavior testing and other biomedical analyses. Experiment 2: Prenatal norethindrone (NET) exposure-induced offspring are treated with ERβ knockdown lentivirus together with RSV for further testing. Experiment 3: Pregnant dams are treated with prenatal NET exposure together with RSV, and the offspring are used for further testing.ResultsEight kinds of clinically relevant progestins were used for prenatal exposure in pregnant dams, and the offspring showed decreased ERβ expression in the amygdala with autism-like behavior. Oral administration of either postnatal or prenatal RSV treatment significantly reversed this effect with ERβ activation and ameliorated autism-like behavior. Further investigation showed that RSV activates ERβ and its target genes by demethylation of DNA and histone on the ERβ promoter, and then minimizes progestin-induced oxidative stress as well as the dysfunction of mitochondria and lipid metabolism in the brain, subsequently ameliorating autism-like behavior.ConclusionsWe conclude that resveratrol ameliorates prenatal progestin exposure-induced autism-like behavior through ERβ activation. Our data suggest that prenatal progestin exposure is a strong risk factor for autism-like behavior. Many potential clinical progestin applications, including oral contraceptive pills, preterm birth drugs, and progestin-contaminated drinking water or seafood, may be risk factors for ASD. In addition, RSV may be a good candidate for clinically rescuing or preventing ASD symptoms in humans, while high doses of resveratrol used in the animals may be a potential limitation for human application.
Highlights
Recent literatures indicate that maternal hormone exposure is a risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
The 5-week-old male offspring were treated by either control (CTL) or resveratrol (RSV) for 4 weeks, and the estrogen receptor β (ERβ) mRNA in the amygdala was evaluated by real-time PCR and the autism-like behavior was evaluated by social interaction time
Our results showed that E2 had no effect, while P4 slightly decreased ERβ expression but had no significant effect on social interaction time, and almost all the clinically relevant progestins significantly decreased ERβ expression, and decreased social interaction time compared to the vehicle group
Summary
Recent literatures indicate that maternal hormone exposure is a risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ERβ regulates the basal expression of superoxide dismutase (SOD2), which regulates oxidative stress [11], and estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα) [12], which regulates mitochondrial function and lipid metabolism [13, 14]. ERβ suppression results in oxidative stress and dysfunction of mitochondrial and lipid metabolism, subsequently triggering brain damage and autism-like behavior [9, 15]. This indicates that hormone-mediated ERβ suppression may contribute to ASD development
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