Abstract
Cyberspace as a system has expanded exponentially across the globe as a massively complex universal substrate. It now demonstrates the surprises of large-scale socio-technical systems from electrical grids to just-in-time manufacturing supply chains, all of which increasingly support or are supported by cyberspace. These deeply linked, large-scale socio-technical systems (STSs) are creating nationally and globally interdependent “socio-cyber” systems (SCSs) by using cyberspace to improve efficiencies and lower costs. No longer can one assume a national infrastructure to be resilient when it is vulnerable to the four cumulating layers of surprises coming from a global socio-cyber infrastructure (GSCI). Critical research questions are posed for each of these layers of surprise as necessary for understanding conceptually and institutionally how to ensure resilience in any emergent GSCI that is fundamental to global security.
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