Abstract
The results of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) indicated that the mathematics performance of eighth-grade students in the United States declined notably when compared with the performance of fourth-grade students (United States Department of Education 1998). Student performance fell five positions from the seventh-ranked U.S. fourth graders to the twelfth-ranked U.S. eighth graders among the twenty-six countries that participated in the study. In response to the TIMSS results, many efforts have been made to reform school mathematics over the past decade, especially in grades 4 through 8.
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