Reply on RC2

Abstract

<strong class="journal-contentHeaderColor">Abstract.</strong> On 15 January 2022, an exceptional eruption of the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai volcano generated atmospheric and tsunami waves that were widely observed in the oceans globally, gaining remarkable attention from scientists in related fields. The tsunamigenic mechanism of this rare event remains enigmatic due to its complexity and lack of direct underwater observations. Here, to explore the tsunamigenic mechanisms of this volcanic tsunami event and its hydrodynamic processes in the Pacific Ocean, we conduct statistical analysis and spectral analysis of the tsunami recordings at 116 coastal gauges and 38 deep-ocean buoys across the Pacific Ocean. Combined with the constraints of some representative barometers, we obtain the plausible tsunamigenic origins of the volcano activity. We identify four distinct tsunami wave components generated by air–sea coupling and seafloor crustal deformation. Those tsunami components are differentiated by their different propagating speeds or period bands. The first-arriving tsunami component with an <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 80–100 min period was from shock waves spreading at a velocity of <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 1000 m s<span class="inline-formula">^−1</span> in the vicinity of the eruption. The second component with extraordinary tsunami amplitude in the deep ocean was from Lamb waves. The Lamb wave with a <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 30–40 min period radically propagated outward from the eruption site with spatially decreasing propagation velocities from <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 340 to <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 315m s<span class="inline-formula">^−1</span>. The third component with a <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 10–30 min period was probably from some atmospheric-gravity-wave modes propagating faster than 200 m s<span class="inline-formula">^−1</span> but slower than Lamb waves. The last component with a <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 3–5 min period originated from partial caldera collapse with dimension of <span class="inline-formula">∼</span> 0.8–1.8 km. Surprisingly, the 2022 Tonga volcanic tsunami produced long oscillation in the Pacific Ocean which is comparable with that of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami. We point out that the long oscillation is associated not only with the resonance effect with the atmospheric acoustic-gravity waves but more importantly with their interactions with local bathymetry. This rare event also calls for more attention to the tsunami hazards produced by an atypical tsunamigenic source, e.g. volcanic eruption.