Abstract
Abstract European medicine entered the fourteenth century well ensconced in the universities and, to some extent, regulated by civil authorities. Orthodoxies had formed around the classical medical texts and their commentaries. The medical literature was studied side by side with scientific, moral, political, and theological literature. Guilds of physicians had formed, and a nascent profession had appeared. The scholarly physicians, who had “read” medicine and could justify their diagnoses and therapies by reference to a text and a theory were a small island in the sea of semiliterate practitioners, folk healers, and quacks, but on that island the science and ethics of medicine flourished.
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