Abstract

This research aims to analyze the relationships between causal factors likely to affect future CO2 emissions from the Thai transportation sector by developing the Structural Equation Modeling-Vector Autoregressive Error Correction Mechanism Model (SEM-VECM Model). This model was created to fill information gaps of older models. In addition, the model provides the unique feature of viable model application for different sectors in various contexts. The model revealed all exogenous variables that have direct and indirect influences over changes in CO2 emissions. The variables show a direct effect at a confidence interval of 99%, including per capita GDP (), labor growth (), urbanization rate factor (), industrial structure (), energy consumption (), foreign direct investment (), oil price (), and net exports (). In addition, it was found that every variable in the SEM-VECM model has an indirect effect on changes in CO2 emissions at a confidence interval of 99%. The SEM-VECM model has the ability to adjust to the equilibrium equivalent to 39%. However, it also helps to identify the degree of direct effect that each causal factor has on the others. Specifically, labor growth () had a direct effect on per capita GDP () and energy consumption () at a confidence interval of 99%, while urbanization rate () had a direct effect on per capita GDP (), labor growth (), and net exports () at a confidence interval of 99%. Furthermore, industrial structure () had a direct effect on per capita GDP () at a confidence interval of 99%, whereas energy consumption () had a direct effect on per capita GDP () at a confidence interval of 99%. Foreign direct investment () had a direct effect on per capita GDP () at a confidence interval of 99%, while oil price () had a direct effect on industrial structure (), energy consumption (), and net exports () at a confidence interval of 99%. Lastly, net exports () had a direct effect on per capita GDP () at a confidence interval of 99%. The model eliminates the problem of heteroskedasticity, multicollinearity, and autocorrelation. In addition, it was found that the model is white noise. When the SEM-VECM Model was used for 30-year forecasting (2018–2047), it projected that CO2 emissions would increase steadily by 67.04% (2047/2018) or 123.90 Mt CO2 Eq. by 2047. The performance of the SEM-VECM Model was assessed and produced a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 1.21% and root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.02%. When comparing the performance value with the values of other, older models, the SEM-VECM Model was found to be more effective and useful for future research and policy planning for Thailand’s sustainability goals.

Highlights

  • In recent years, Thailand has been experiencing steady economic growth as evidenced by the GrossDomestic Product (GDP) growth from 1997 to present [1]

  • When the Structure Estimation Modeling (SEM)-Vector Error Correction Mechanism Model (VECM) Model was used for 30-year forecasting (2018–2047), it projected that CO2 emissions would increase steadily by 67.04% (2047/2018) or 123.90 Mt CO2 Eq

  • The results indicated that all variables are co-integrated in the long term among all countries, and in certain countries, foreign direct investment (FDI) was found to have a greater potential to raise CO2 emissions

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Summary

Introduction

Thailand has been experiencing steady economic growth as evidenced by the GrossDomestic Product (GDP) growth from 1997 to present [1]. Much of the revenue growth contributing to Thailand’s economy can be attributed to government policies promoting foreign investments in Thailand, supporting exports in all sectors, supporting the tourism industry, reducing reliance on imports, encouraging domestic investment in SMEs, and raising the minimum wage [2]. Such policies have helped Thailand to develop its economy while boosting living standards at the same time (2000–present) [1,2]. The sector was found to produce up to 91.2 percent of all greenhouse gases in 2017, a percentage that has increased steadily since 1997 [3,4,5]

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