Abstract
This paper reviews the Hofer (1984, 1996) and Field (1985, 1994) models on relationships as regulators, suggesting that relationships regulate optimal stimulation and thereby modulate arousal levels and attenuate stress. In these models, the behavioral, physiological and biochemical rhythms of individuals become synchronized within close relationships like mother-infant and peer relationships both in human and animal species, and they become more coordinated over time, with some potentially remaining stable, much like zeitgebers. Hofer supports his model by data on infant rat separation stress and Field describes “psychobiological attunement” between human infants and their mothers and between young peers. This review revisits the “relationships as regulators” model, summarizing studies on relationships between non-depressed versus depressed mothers and their infants, between infant, preschool and preadolescent friends versus acquaintances and between happily versus unhappily married couples. Although some behavioral and physiological data support Hofer’s and Field’s “relationships as regulators” model, many studies on relationships have focused instead on the effects of separation or loss. Both Hofer and Field suggest that the real question is “what was there about the relationship that was then missing after the loss?” Future research could address the question of potential mediators and underlying mechanisms for relationships becoming regulators. Potential mediators are explored here including mirror neurons, affective priming, imitation and empathy. The individuals’ rhythms and the attraction to others’ rhythms as regulators may be an epigenetic programming phenomenon, suggesting both genetic and early experience effects that endure across development.
Highlights
This paper reviews models on relationships as regulators advanced by Hofer (1984, 1996) and Field (1985, 1994)
Some behavioral and physiological data support Hofer’s and Field’s “relationships as regulators” model, many studies on relationships have focused instead on the effects of separation or loss. Both Hofer and Field suggest that the real question is “what was there about the relationship that was missing after the loss?” Future research could address the question of potential mediators and underlying mechanisms for relationships becoming regulators
Hofer (1984, 1996) and Field (1985, 1994) advanced models on relationships as regulators, with Hofer supporting his model by data on infant rats separated from their mothers and Field describing a psychobiological attunement between human infants and their mothers
Summary
This paper reviews models on relationships as regulators advanced by Hofer (1984, 1996) and Field (1985, 1994). This paper reviews data on those models and suggestions for future research In his seminal paper on “relationships as regulators”, Hofer described how he discovered this model when the mother rat was separated from her offspring, and distress cries and physiological disorganization ensued (Hofer, 1984). He noted the synchrony in menstrual cycles after women started living in groups (McClintock, 1983; Weller & Weller, 1993), how social interactions facilitated recovery from jet leg (Klein & Wegmann, 1974), and how, in contrast, sensory deprivation could have extremely disorganizing effects (Heron, 1961) He referred to external regulators as substituting for a natural regulator, citing an example from our research on massaging preterm infants to reduce touch deprivation while the preemies were in incubators separated from their parents (Field, Schanberg, Scafidi, Bauer, Vega-Lahr, Garcia et al, 1986). He suggested “looking carefully for exactly what was lost when loss occurs”
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