Abstract

Reinforcement deficits in ADHD may affect basic operant learning processes relevant for Behavioral Treatment. Behavior acquired under partial reinforcement extinguishes less readily after the discontinuation of reinforcement than behavior acquired under continuous reinforcement, a phenomenon known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect [PREE], which has great relevance for the emergence of behavioral persistence. The present study examined acquisition and extinction of operant responding under partial and continuous reinforcement in children with and without ADHD. In addition, we evaluated the effectiveness of gradual stretching the reinforcement rate during acquisition for remedying potential acquisition or extinction deficits under partial reinforcement in ADHD. In an operant learning task designed to mimic the task confronted by an animal in a Skinner box, 62 typically developing and 49 children with ADHD (age: 8–12) were presented with a continuous, partial or gradually stretching reinforcement scheme followed by extinction. Both groups of children acquired the instrumental response more slowly and exhibited more behavioral persistence (reduced extinction) when responding was initially reinforced under partial relative to continuous reinforcement, with no differences between groups. Progressive ratio stretching resulted in faster acquisition than partial reinforcement yet promoted equal behavioral persistence, again without differences between ADHD and TD groups. Unlike suggested by previous research, children with ADHD exhibit neither an acquisition deficit under partial reinforcement nor a deficit in PREE. Of relevance for Behavioral Treatment, gradual reinforcement stretching can be used to facilitate response acquisition over purely partial reinforcement while maintaining equal behavioral persistence upon reward discontinuation.

Highlights

  • Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder [ADHD] display elevated levels of inattentive, hyperactive and impulsive behaviors, which are inconsistent with theirElectronic supplementary material The online version of this article contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.Science and Technology Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna, Kunigami District, Okinawa, Prefecture 904-0412, Japan 4 Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129, Amsterdam 1018 WS, The Netherlands developmental level (American Psychiatric Association 2013)

  • Behavioral treatment is strongly embedded in operant learning principles; i.e., adaptive behavior is reinforced, and non-adaptive behavior is ignored or punished

  • The present study examined instrumental reinforcement learning in children with ADHD and TD children under partial and continuous reinforcement schedules, using a relatively simple task closely modeled on procedures used in operant learning experiments in animals

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Summary

Introduction

The disorder, typically diagnosed in early to middle childhood, is common (5–7%) (Polanczyk et al 2007) and leads to impairment in multiple areas of functioning (Wehmeier et al 2010) It is associated with long-term risk for adverse outcomes in later life (American Psychiatric Association 2013; Wehmeier et al 2010). While the effectiveness of BPT for comorbid oppositional symptoms and for improving children’s emotional, social and academic functioning is well established, it is less effective than pharmacotherapy in reducing the core symptoms of ADHD (Daley et al 2014; Van der Oord et al 2008) It has limited long-term effects (Lee et al 2012). Behavioral treatment is strongly embedded in operant learning principles; i.e., adaptive behavior is reinforced, and non-adaptive behavior is ignored or punished

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