Abstract
Glacial refugia are centers of high biodiversity. Therefore, knowledge on their locations and reactions of associated populations and landscapes to climatic changes is crucial for conservation management. We here investigated the biogeography of a butterfly species linked to open forest habitats. Using mitochondrial and nuclear markers in combination with Bayesian simulations, we analyzed the location and age of potential glacial refugia of the species. We identified five putative refugia in Europe. Considering the ecological needs of our study species, tree density within these refugial areas, in contrast to earlier assumptions, must have exceeded the level of individually scattered trees. Our results also provide evidence that especially the refuge areas in the Carpathians were previously underestimated regarding their age: the refugia in the Southern Carpathians presented suitable conditions throughout several glacial cycles, probably since the Mindel or Riss cycles. Additionally, our analyses provided support for a forest refugium near the Tatra Mountains persisting the last glacial maximum. Our results underline the usefulness of this and probably other butterfly species as indicators of forest refugia.
Highlights
Glacial refugia are centers of high biodiversity
Distributions of living organisms are subject to permanent change with glacial and interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene having strong effects on the ranges of animals and plants worldwide, especially in E urope[1]
Warm-adapted species were restricted to refugia
Summary
Glacial refugia are centers of high biodiversity. knowledge on their locations and reactions of associated populations and landscapes to climatic changes is crucial for conservation management. Genetic studies discovered numerous genetic lineages, often with complex structures, and led to the exploration of extra-Mediterranean and cryptic refugia in E urope[6] It has been shown for a larger number of temperate species representing a large array of different animal and plant groups that they have survived glacial conditions in northern, often cryptic refugia[7,8,9]. Numerous tree species have survived the last cold phase of the Pleistocene in these extra-Mediterranean refugia, according to studies using subfossil evidence of timber, pollen profiles, genetic analyses, and niche m odeling[14,15,16] These lines of evidence demonstrate that retreat areas for tree species were located especially at the edge of high mountain systems (i.e. Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians). On the Balkan Peninsula, trees were probably more widespread under glacial climatic conditions than previously a ssumed[15]
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