Abstract
Sodium ion batteries (SIBs) have attracted lots of attention over last few years due to the abundance and wide availability of sodium resources, making SIBs the most cost-effective alternative to the currently used lithium ion batteries (LIBs). Many efforts are underway to find effective anodes for SIBs since the commercial anode for LIBs, graphite, has shown very limited capacity for SIBs. Among many different types of carbons, hard carbons—especially these derived from biomass—hold a great deal of promise for SIB technology thanks to their constantly improving performance and low cost. The main scope of this mini-review is to present current progress in preparation of negative electrodes from biomass including aspects related to precursor types used and their impact on the final carbon characteristics (structure, texture and composition). Another aspect discussed is how certain macro- and microstructure characteristics of the materials translate to their performance as anode for Na-ion batteries. In the last part, current understanding of factors governing sodium insertion into hard carbons is summarized, specifically those that could help solve existing performance bottlenecks such as irreversible capacity, initial low Coulombic efficiency and poor rate performance.
Highlights
Climate change and decreasing availability of cost-effective fossil fuels are of global concern regarding energy storage, leading toward a collective effort in finding alternative energy storage technologies
The pyrolysis of lignin usually results in which translates into a different structure and/or morphology that eventually influences their converting biomass into porous carbons [51], especially if lignin contains some impurities as a residue performance when tested againstprocess
Since the amount of activation-created functional groups is closely related to the specific surface area, it is not surprising that high surface area materials exhibit a large amount of oxygen-containing groups as well
Summary
Climate change and decreasing availability of cost-effective fossil fuels are of global concern regarding energy storage, leading toward a collective effort in finding alternative energy storage technologies. Lignin and hemicelluloses are known to be highly cross-linked and non-crystalline, which make them non-graphitizable in the chemical temperature Another aspect of choosing the precursor is that each one presents a unique composition range usually used to prepare negative electrodes for SIBs. The pyrolysis of lignin usually results in which translates into a different structure and/or morphology that eventually influences their converting biomass into porous carbons [51], especially if lignin contains some impurities as a residue performance when tested againstprocess. This structure of phenolic resins and gives a similar carbon yield approximately is a significant improvement, it limits the spectrum of choices and raises the challenge of fabricating carbonaceous anode materials with high performance using mostly lignin
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