Abstract

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have recently been labeled as toxic constituents that exist in many aqueous environments. However, traditional methods used to determine the level of PFASs are often not appropriate for continuous environmental monitoring and management. Based on the current state of research, PFAS-detecting sensors have surfaced as a promising method of determination. These sensors are an innovative solution with characteristics that allow for in situ, low-cost, and easy-to-use capabilities. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the recent developments in PFAS-detecting sensors, and why the literature on determination methods has shifted in this direction compared to the traditional methods used. PFAS-detecting sensors discussed herein are primarily categorized in terms of the detection mechanism used. The topics covered also include the current limitations, as well as insight on the future direction of PFAS analyses. This paper is expected to be useful for the smart sensing technology development of PFAS detection methods and the associated environmental management best practices in smart cities of the future.

Highlights

  • Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, commonly referred to as poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), are largely man-made chemicals that are hydrophobic and lipophobic [1,2]

  • PFAS analysis is predominantly based on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) have been used for the analysis of selected PFASs in some cases (Table 1)

  • Depending on the molecular characteristics of the target PFASs and the type of information required from the analysis, electrospray ionization (ESI), atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), or atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) have been applied for PFAS measurements [19,20]

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Summary

Introduction

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, commonly referred to as PFASs, are largely man-made chemicals that are hydrophobic and lipophobic [1,2]. Recent awareness has brought attention to the toxicity of these substances. PFASs are associated with health risks, such as cancer, infertility, low birth weight, and delayed puberty [2,3]. Dyslipidemia, a disorder affecting lipid production, has one of the strongest metabolic correspondences to PFAS exposure [4]. Their toxicity to humans and other organisms has incurred interest regarding regulating concentrations, as well as developing determination and treatment methods

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