Recent developments and fabrication of the different electrochemical biosensors based on modified screen printed and glassy carbon electrodes for the early diagnosis of diverse breast cancer biomarkers

Abstract

Breast cancer (BC) is the second most common cancer among women, comprising 34% of all cancers, affecting ∼2.23 million women every year globally. Therefore, early diagnosis of BC is required for successful treatment and hence an increased survival rate. Timely detection of various biomarkers subsisting in the blood, cells, tissues, or other biological fluids using techniques like radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and immunohistochemistry (IHC) can be advantageous in this direction. Although all these methods are effective but they have their pros and cons, hence an alternative non-invasive, cost-effective screening technique with high sensitivity and specificity is required for the point of care (POC) diagnosis. Electrochemical (EC) biosensors are promising tools for POC diagnosis due to their simplicity, reliability, portability, low cost, fast response, ease of detection even with a little sample requirement, magnified sensitivity, low detection limit, and POC testing compatibility. Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs), and glassy carbon electrodes (GCEs) are widely used as electrodes in EC biosensors due to their easy miniaturization, and magnificent mechanical and electrical properties, respectively. This comprehensive review focuses on the recent developments (covering the period of 2015–2022) and fabrication of the different EC bioscaffolds based on modified SPEs and GCEs for the early diagnosis of diverse BC biomarkers at different molecular levels like genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic formats. Further, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and multiplex determination of BC biomarkers are also discussed by using both electrodes. Considering the magnified sensitivity, most of the reported biosensors have been made by surface modification of SPEs/GCEs with various nanomaterials (NMs), enzymes, and metals due to their unique properties. Further, the challenges associated with these biosensors, and future perspectives have been also discussed. Therefore, this review will impart relevant background for the design and fabrication of innovative SPE- and GCE-based POC devices for diverse BC biomarker monitoring which would open the way for augmenting cancer diagnosis and therapeutics. Generally, the principle and techniques remain similar while changing the analyte-biorecognition element (BRE), hence this review will be a proven guide for the development of similar kinds of sensors for other analytes as well.