Abstract
Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by different organisms and microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, protists, and plants, and it is also accumulated in aquatic animals such as fish and crustaceans. Astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts obtained from these sources present an intense red color and a remarkable antioxidant activity, providing great potential to be employed as food ingredients with both technological and bioactive functions. However, their use is hindered by: their instability in the presence of high temperatures, acidic pH, oxygen or light; their low water solubility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability; their intense odor/flavor. The present paper reviews recent advances in the micro/nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts, developed to improve their stability, bioactivity and technological functionality for use as food ingredients. The use of diverse micro/nanoencapsulation techniques using wall materials of a different nature to improve water solubility and dispersibility in foods, masking undesirable odor and flavor, is firstly discussed, followed by a discussion of the importance of the encapsulation to retard astaxanthin release, protecting it from degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. The nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin to improve its bioaccessibility, bioavailability and bioactivity is further reviewed. Finally, the main limitations and future trends on the topic are discussed.
Highlights
Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by different organisms and microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, protists, and plants, and it is accumulated in aquatic animals such as fish and crustaceans
It is known that astaxanthin is produced by different organisms at different stereoisomeric ratios
High stability would be desirable in any case, it is especially relevant in the case of ingredients that need to be stored for long periods before use or if they are to be applied to foods in which degradation boosting or strong interactions with matrix components are expected
Summary
Astaxanthin (3,30 -dihydroxy-β,β0 -carotene-4,40 -dione) is a carotenoid, which belongs to the group of xanthophylls responsible for the color of some plants, animals, and some types of microorganisms. Chlamydomonas nivalis [7], synthesizing organisms microorganisms that(Haematococcus are cultured pluvialis, or collected for this purpose or Chlorella zofingiensis [8], Neochloris wimmeri [9], Scenedesmus acutus [10]); bacteria (Agrohacterium extracted from by-products of the fish industry (mainly from crustaceans). Astaxanthin is predominantly found esterified in the hydroxyl groups with one (monoesters) or two (diesters) units of fatty acids (Figure 1) or conjugated with proteins (carotenoproteins). These associations provide higher stability to astaxanthin, as compared with the non-esterified synthetic forms, which are very susceptible to oxidation [31,32]. The use of high pressure to improve the efficacy of the solvent during the extraction of astaxanthin has been proposed [42], as well as ultrasound [43], microwave [44], magnetic-field-assisted extraction [45], pulsed electric field [46], microbial fermentation [14], and the use of enzymes [47]
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