Abstract
This paper proposes a two-stage smart charging algorithm for future buildings equipped with an electric vehicle, battery energy storage, solar panels, and a heat pump. The first stage is a non-linear programming model that optimizes the charging of electric vehicles and battery energy storage based on a prediction of photovoltaïc (PV) power, building demand, electricity, and frequency regulation prices. Additionally, a Li-ion degradation model is used to assess the operational costs of the electric vehicle (EV) and battery. The second stage is a real-time control scheme that controls charging within the optimization time steps. Finally, both stages are incorporated in a moving horizon control framework, which is used to minimize and compensate for forecasting errors. It will be shown that the real-time control scheme has a significant influence on the obtained cost reduction. Furthermore, it will be shown that the degradation of an electric vehicle and battery energy storage system are non-negligible parts of the total cost of energy. However, despite relatively high operational costs, V2G can still be cost-effective when controlled optimally. The proposed solution decreases the total cost of energy with 98.6% compared to an uncontrolled case. Additionally, the financial benefits of vehicle-to-grid and operating as primary frequency regulation reserve are assessed.
Highlights
In 2015, transportation accounted for 19% of global energy consumption, almost all of which was powered by fossil fuels (including electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid EVs) [1]
Photovoltaïc (PV) solar energy is being investigated as a primary energy source for EV charging due to the synergies which exist between EV and PV
A building smart charging algorithm was presented for a multi-port system integrating EV, PV, Battery Energy Storage (BES), and a heat pumps (HPs)
Summary
In 2015, transportation accounted for 19% of global energy consumption, almost all of which was powered by fossil fuels (including electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid EVs) [1]. Charging an EV from local PV power reduces the stress which EV charging is imposing on the future grid Another significant part of global energy consumption is the built environment; In [4,5] it is stated that the built environment emits up to 40% of all global greenhouse gasses. Often, the existing distribution grid is unable to provide this increase in electrical demand caused by HPs and EVs. Luckily, Battery Energy Storage (BES). A real-time building smart charging algorithm is presented, which, based on forecasts and Li-ion battery degradation, minimizes the operational costs of a PV-EV-BES-HP system while at the same providing a supporting role in the future smart grid by ancillary services and demand-side management
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