Abstract
Some South American poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) are chemically defended and use bright aposematic colors to warn potential predators of their unpalatability. Aposematic signals are often frequency‐dependent where individuals deviating from a local model are at a higher risk of predation. However, extreme diversity in the aposematic signal has been documented in poison frogs, especially in Oophaga. Here, we explore the phylogeographic pattern among color‐divergent populations of the Little Devil poison frog Oophaga sylvatica by analyzing population structure and genetic differentiation to evaluate which processes could account for color diversity within and among populations. With a combination of PCR amplicons (three mitochondrial and three nuclear markers) and genome‐wide markers from a double‐digested RAD (ddRAD) approach, we characterized the phylogenetic and genetic structure of 199 individuals from 13 populations (12 monomorphic and 1 polymorphic) across the O. sylvatica distribution. Individuals segregated into two main lineages by their northern or southern latitudinal distribution. A high level of genetic and phenotypic polymorphism within the northern lineage suggests ongoing gene flow. In contrast, low levels of genetic differentiation were detected among the southern lineage populations and support recent range expansions from populations in the northern lineage. We propose that a combination of climatic gradients and structured landscapes might be promoting gene flow and phylogenetic diversification. Alternatively, we cannot rule out that the observed phenotypic and genomic variations are the result of genetic drift on near or neutral alleles in a small number of genes.
Highlights
Aposematism is an antipredator adaptation that has evolved in many animals as a defense strategy
We explored population structure of the highly polymorphic Little Devil poison frog, O. sylvatica, which has an inland distribution in the Chocoan rainforest and ranges from southwestern Colombia to northwestern Ecuador (Funkhouser 1956)
Most haplotypes are unique to remote clusters, one composed of haplotypes from the Otokiki population, except for 6 that are shared Otokiki and Felfa populations that link to O. histrionica, with the populations of Alto Tambo, Lita and Durango. and one composed of haplotypes from the San These are the geographically the closest Antonio population that link to O. pumilio
Summary
Aposematism is an antipredator adaptation that has evolved in many animals as a defense strategy. This adaptation combines warning signals (e.g., vivid coloration) with diverse predator deterrents such as toxins, venoms and other noxious substances. The aposematism strategy is dependent on the predictability of the warning signal for effective recognition as well as learning and avoidance by predators (Benson 1971; Mallet et al 1989; Kapan 2001; Pinheiro 2003; Ruxton et al 2004; Chouteau et al 2016). Some aposematic species present high levels of polymorphic coloration and patterning (Przeczek et al 2008). The causes and consequences of intraspecific variation in warning signals remains a fundamental question in the evolution and ecology of aposematism
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