Abstract
Topography underpins natural processes ranging from incident solar radiation to overland flow and water pooling. Despite the influence of topography on natural processes, especially in wetland ecosystems reliant on uplands for water inputs, topography has not been adequately incorporated into reclamation planning. Instead, wetland reclamation projects are typically guided by height-to-length ratios that produce little resemblance to natural wetlands. We present a methodology to quantify the topographic characteristics in landscapes with an abundance of wetlands to guide the reclamation of naturally appearing and self-sustaining wetlandscapes. Topographic characteristics in over 3000 sample landscapes were quantified using terrain roughness and landform element composition and configuration. A large set of metrics was reduced to a statistically independent subset that was applied and compared across three natural regions and a gradient of disturbance. Our results showed that surface roughness and landform element patterns significantly differ among natural regions and that high disturbance landscapes significantly differ from other disturbance levels. To ensure reclaimed wetlandscapes are naturally appearing and self-sustaining, they should replicate the topographic characteristics found within the distribution of surrounding natural landscapes by applying topographic characteristic benchmarks to reclamation design. The presented methodology can be used as a step towards achieving this goal.
Highlights
Characteristics of the surface of Earth and variation in elevation affect erosion (Martín-Duque et al 2010), hydrology (Los Huertos and Smith 2013), and other natural processes that subsequently influence the distribution of biotic communities across local-to-regional landscapes (Nellemann and Fry 1995; Hofer et al 2008)
Differences in surface roughness were distinguishable between different levels of disturbance for the Boreal natural region, suggesting that the topography of the Boreal differs greatest from that modified by disturbance
Among the five terrain roughness metrics (TRMs) evaluated, focal slope variability was the strongest differentiator across disturbance levels, showing significant differences in 15 of the 30 comparisons, which corroborates its influence in differentiating between natural regions (Table 4, comparison #6)
Summary
Characteristics of the surface of Earth (e.g., slope, aspect) and variation in elevation affect erosion (Martín-Duque et al 2010), hydrology (Los Huertos and Smith 2013), and other natural processes that subsequently influence the distribution of biotic communities across local-to-regional landscapes (Nellemann and Fry 1995; Hofer et al 2008). Through terrain analysis (Wilson and Gallant 2000; Hengl and Reuter 2009), topographic characteristics and variation in elevation are quantified to better understand how topography and landform elements underpin natural processes and the spatial distribution of ecosystems. Wetland ecosystems are an archetype of natural systems often reliant on surrounding topography as a driver of wetland hydrology (Los Huertos and Smith 2013). These ecosystems provide a range of services that include: important waterfowl habitat (Conly and van der Kamp 2001) and environmental regulation including storm water mitigation, water purification, and carbon sequestration (Zedler and Kercher 2005). Despite the benefits of wetland ecosystem services, global wetland loss is estimated at 64–71% since 1900 AD (Davidson 2014) and these ecosystems are difficult to restore back to natural biological structure and function (MorenoMateos et al 2012)
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