Quantifying responses of aquatic insects to environmental change

Freshwater ecosystems represent hotspots for the world’s total diversity and human well-being. However, they are also subjected to threats across the globe as a result of localised human activities, broad scale catchment clearance, climate change and invasive species. The increased degradation of freshwater habitats and their ecological functions as a consequence of these threats, at local and global scales, has led to significant freshwater problems for human existence and the world’s biodiversity. There is growing evidence that the loss of biodiversity is one of the most complex environmental issues facing the world; however, the importance of understanding species distribution patterns and the ecological differentiation among species that are reflected as species-specific responses or tolerances to environmental drivers is less well understood. In particular, when a morphological approach is used as a taxonomic tool for investigating species diversity and species level responses to environmental drivers, the diversity of responses hidden within species complexes may not be realized, and the conclusion of generality may mask specific cryptic species responses. In South-East Queensland, Australia, European occupation since the mid 1800’s has seen large scale clearing of native vegetation along streams and rivers in nearly all catchments. As a consequence of this land-use change catchment hydrology has been substantially altered, which, combined with the presence of dams and weirs, has resulted in a decline in water quality of streams in some catchments, which is of growing concern for conservation of species biodiversity. This study aimed to explore cryptic diversity in two species complexes of freshwater aytid shrimps common in South-East Queensland and elucidate species level responses to environmental variation that could explain their spatial distribution. This broad aim was met through three specific studies. First, using regional scale data of cryptic species diversity and water quality, the importance of species-specific responses to environmental conditions in determining spatial distribution patterns and environmental relationships of cryptic species in the Caridina indistincta and Paratya australiensis species complexes was examined. To accomplish this aim, DNA sequences were used to identify shrimp specimens from 89 sites in 17 catchments spanning the study area. In addition, an assessment of eight morphological traits was used to test whether these cryptic species could be morphologically identified. Use of these eight traits did allow species level identification, at least in South-East Queensland. However, caution is suggested in the use of these morphological traits for recognising species, due to the probability of morphological plasticity within a species across broad spatial scales. Ordination analysis of presence-absence data showed that the five cryptic species within the two species complexes showed spatially distinct distributions across streams in SEQ, with each cryptic species displaying different relationships with individual environmental variables. For species in the Caridina indistincta complex, C. indistincta sp. B was significantly associated with elevation, C. indistincta sp. D was significantly correlated with dissolved oxygen range, whilst, individuals of C. indistincta sp. A were negatively associated with elevation and dissolved oxygen range. This may indicate that C. indistincta sp. A tended to inhabit sites with low elevation and perhaps having a higher tolerance to a low range of dissolved oxygen. For the Paratya australiensis species complex, P. australiensis lineage 4 and 6 showed significant correlations with elevation and conductivity, respectively. The second broad aim of the study was to explore these spatial patterns at smaller geographical scales and with greater detail about water quality to understand and quantify the fundamental environmental factors (e.g., physical chemical water parameters and concentrations of heavy metals) that are potentially shaping the current distribution patterns and abundance of cryptic species within the two species complexes. To explore this aim, sediment samples from 22 sites in 13 catchments in SEQ were analysed to determine concentrations (mg/kg dry weight) of 11 heavy metals. Additionally, a number of water quality variables were measured in situ, including: elevation, stream width, stream temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids, and turbidity. Also, a water sample was taken from each site for laboratory analysis of: Ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N), Dissolved oxidized nitrogen (Nitrate+Nitrite) (NOX-N), Total nitrogen (TN), Total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), Total kjeldahl phosphorus (TKP), Orthophosphate-P (PO4-P). Shrimps were collected from each site and identified to species using both morphology and DNA sequencing. The morphological identification of each adult individual (except juveniles which were genetically analysed) was used as a measure of absolute abundance and the genetic ‘checking’ of a set number of individuals in each sample was used to compute relative abundance. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that the spatial distribution and absolute and relative abundance of C. indistincta sp. D and sp. B were significantly positively influenced by elevation, while the relative abundance of P. australiensis Lin.6 was significantly positively affected by the concentration of manganese (Mn). Stream Total nitrogen (TN) was significantly positive driver of the spatial distribution and relative abundance of C. indistincta sp. A, while Orthophosphate-P (PO4-P) was significantly positive driver for the absolute and relative abundance of this species. Further analysis, this study confirms that P. australiensis Lin.6 was more tolerant of heavy metal concentrations compared with other cryptic species, as its distribution and absolute and relative abundance were significantly positively correlated with the concentrations of manganese, iron and cobalt. In contrast, C. indistincta sp. A was more sensitive to these metals than other study species. These results demonstrated that cryptic species of freshwater atyid shrimps of the C. indistincta and P. australiensis species complexes were different in their environmental requirements. As well, the cryptic species of both complexes were identified to have different associations with heavy metal concentrations, indicating that these species were different in their tolerance to toxicants. Finally, the third aim of the study was to further examine the differences in sensitivity to heavy metals (Copper and Zinc) among cryptic species of the two study complexes experimentally in the laboratory. Two cryptic species of each complex were used as study species, C. indistincta sp. A and sp. D and P. australiensis Lin.4 and Lin.6. The field studies showed differences among these species in their correlations with metal concentrations, and therefore they were seen as good candidate species for testing differences in the sensitivity to metal toxicants. Each cryptic species was exposed to six concentrations of each metal Cu or Zn using an acute (96-h) toxicity test. The results from this study were generally showed contrasting correlation between species and heavy metals; P. australiensis Lin.6 was the most tolerant species to both study metals, while C. indistincta sp. A was more sensitive to copper, and C. indistincta sp. D was more sensitive to Zn compared with the other tested species. Furthermore, the exposure of individuals of each species to the heavy metals caused changes in both their behaviour and their colour during exposure time. Overall, this study has shown cryptic species within broad species complexes can vary in their spatial distribution and their tolerance and response to water quality parameters. This highlights the advantage of using analyses of biotic and abiotic variables for ecological management and biodiversity conservation and the need to understand true species diversity when looking at species level responses to environmental degradation.

There has been much interest in the last decade concerning the factors that influence diversity, especially how diversity and ecosystem processes may be linked. This study was based in small, cobble streams in South East Queensland. Its aim was to determine how the diversity and composition of consumers (the grazer guild) is influenced by both the production and composition of benthic algae, at different spatial scales. It also aimed to ascertain whether this response differs among grazer sub guilds with different dispersal capabilities. Ten sites in the Upper Brisbane and Mary catchments were sampled. The sites were selected to provide a range of productivity and composition. Grazers from these sites included snails and elmids, and larval mayflies, moths, and caddisflies. Grazer diversity and composition appeared to be structured by catchment scale influences, but environmental variables also affected which animals colonised patches and microhabitats (cobbles) within catchments. Primary productivity and algal composition could not be separated, with highly productive reaches also having a high cover of filamentous algal taxa. Grazer diversity displayed strongly positive, linear relationships with algal variables at the reach scale. It had a negative relationship with filamentous algae at the cobble scale, and a non-significant hump-shaped relationship with primary productivity. Survey data alone could not separate whether grazers were responding to habitat or food-related drivers, or to variations in productivity. Experimental manipulation of algal variables at the patch scale, using light and nutrients, also could not clearly uncouple the relationship between primary productivity and filamentous algal cover. Once reach scale variation was removed, grazer diversity displayed hump-shaped relationships with algal variables, including algal diversity. Much of this variation was due to patterns in mobile grazers, as sedentary grazers did not respond to algal variation at this scale. The density of the more mobile taxa showed similar patterns to those at the cobble scale (hump-shaped). A second field experiment was carried out in order to further investigate the responses of invertebrates to algal community composition at the cobble scale. Data from all three chapters suggested that as sites shifted to a dominance of filamentous algae, often with an associated increase in GPP, there was also a shift in the grazer community towards more sedentary grazers and away from the more mobile taxa. This also occurred at the cobble scale in the second experiment. The gut analysis and diet studies in the third chapter indicated that while many grazers consumed filamentous algae, it was not assimilated. This suggests that the preferences for sedentary taxa for cobbles and reaches dominated by filamentous algae are likely to be due to some other, possibly habitat-related, factor such as flow or predation refuge. The study provides a rare examination of relationships between primary productivity and consumer diversity in freshwater streams, and finds support for the pattern found in other systems of monotonic relationships of these two variables at large scales and hump-shaped relationships at smaller scales. It emphasises the importance of understanding other, potentially confounding, aspects of communities of producers, and investigates the possible roles of the most important of these (community composition) in structuring consumer communities in the small cobble streams of South-East Queensland.

Coral reef mesopredator trophodynamics in response to reef condition

Aquatic insects are among the most directly affected and vulnerable organisms with respect to surface water pollution and used as bioindicators of water quality. The composition, distribution and diversity of aquatic insects in Owan River, southern Nigeria were assessed and influence of different physico-chemical factors were explored at four designated stations. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (5.2 -7.8mgl-1) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (1.64–2.60 gl-1) showed that the river was slightly aerated. A total of 38 taxa comprising of 1896 individuals were recorded during the study. Station 3 accounted for the highest number of individuals (530) while Station 1 had the lowest number of individuals (410). Order Diptera was the most ubiquitous insect taxa in the study with nine (9) species while order Plecoptera was sparingly represented by one (1) species Neoperla sp. Diversity index revealed that taxa richness (d) and diversity (H) were highest in Station 1 while Station 3 accounted for the lowest taxa richness and diversity. Ephemeroptera Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) were highest in Station 3 and Station 1 had the least EPT value. Station 3 showed the lowest chironomid richness while Station 4 had the highest. The composition, distribution and diversity of aquatic insects in Owan River were affected by the nature of the streambed and physicochemical variables examined. Owan River can be said to be slightly clean water body rich in EPT organisms. Key Words : EPT organisms, bioindicator, physico-chemical parameters, Owan River, Southern Nigeria.

The spider infraorder Mygalomorphae includes the funnel-web spiders, tarantulas, trapdoor spiders and their kin. Because of their particular life history characteristics, systematic revisions of mygalomorph taxa are fundamentally informative and of broader biological interest, but also a matter of conservation priority. Mygalomorph spiders are relatively long-lived, usually with limited dispersal abilities, high habitat specificity, and a long historical presence in areas relative to landscape processes. These characteristics lead to high levels of speciation and local endemism in many mygalomorph lineages, and a build-up of genetic structure between and within species at fine spatial scales. From the perspective of a researcher, high levels of genetic structure and speciation make mygalomorph lineages ideal for investigating biogeographic history and speciation processes. From a conservation perspective, local endemism, habitat specificity and low dispersal ability mean that mygalomorph populations (and potentially species) are sensitive to habitat modification, and have little ability to disperse from, or recolonise, affected areas. In the context of a biodiversity crisis, and hindered by ‘impediments’ to systematics and taxonomy, systematists must allocate their time and efforts carefully. Given their inherent vulnerability and the value of research on mygalomorph taxa, revisions of poorly known elements of this fauna are both urgent and of evolutionary importance. Intergeneric relationships within the spiny trapdoor spiders of Australasia (Idiopidae: Arbanitinae) were recently stabilised. This provided a foundation for targeted work into genera within the subfamily, many of which had never received substantial systematic attention. Prior to my project, only seven species of golden trapdoor spider (tribe Euoplini, previously all in the genus Euoplos) had been described from eastern Australia, despite the genus spanning the length and breadth of the eastern mesic zone. The genus was seen as a conservation priority because it is highly diverse in south-eastern Queensland, Australia, a region where urban development (sub-coastal) and agricultural development (inland) threaten to encroach on the natural remnants where undescribed species occur. Furthermore, undocumented variability in morphology and burrow entrance structure in the genus presented a valuable opportunity to study morphology and behavioural evolution in mygalomorph spiders. In this thesis, I compare and integrate morphological data, behavioural data (burrow entrance type) and molecular data in order to: infer the first robust phylogeny of the genus Euoplos; investigate the phylogenetic signal of morphology and burrow entrance architecture to generate evolutionary hypotheses of broader relevance to mygalomorph systematics; and revise select lineages in the genus based on their conservation priority. In Chapter 2, I use morphological data to guide targeted sampling of Euoplos from eastern Australia, before generating the first comprehensive molecular phylogeny for the genus. Male morphology and burrow entrance architecture are then compared with the molecular phylogeny to reveal the existence of two widespread, sympatric lineages which differ in their burrow entrance structure and male morphology: the ‘wafer-door’ lineage and the ‘plug-door/palisade’ lineage. I also identify a taxonomic error in the literature, where males belonging to a wafer-door species were incorrectly linked with females belonging to a sympatric species in the plug-door/palisade lineage. In chapter 3, I present a systematic revision of a group of Euoplos which were recovered as a clade in Chapter 2, and which construct remarkable ‘palisade’ type burrow entrances. Revision of the group was seen as urgent because all species have very small natural ranges and occur in remnant rainforest habitats within heavily modified landscapes. This revision results in the description of four new species, and I was also able to identify species-specific differences in burrow entrance architecture, providing a means of non-intrusive species identification. In Chapter 4, all available data are integrated into a total-evidence phylogenetic analysis of the entire tribe Euoplini. Ancestral state reconstruction is used to demonstrate how morphological and behavioural (burrow entrance architecture) characters relate to topology. This chapter results in the reclassification of the tribe, with two new genera erected: Cryptoforis (wafer-door lineage) and Narellea (a single, divergent species). This chapter also highlights the utility of both male and female morphology for phylogenetic and taxonomic studies on mygalomorph spiders, and provides morphological characters and a phylogenetic framework for future integrative phylogenetics/taxonomy on the Idiopidae and other mygalomorph groups. Chapter 5 consists of a complete taxonomic synopsis of the newly-recognised genus Cryptoforis. Revision of this new genus was seen as a priority due to the cryptic nature of the wafer-door burrows they create, and due to the fact that they were previously undocumented from mainland Australia. Numerous species also appear to be short-range endemics, restricted to remnant or relictual habitats in eastern Australia. In total, 16 species are described in the genus. In summary, my project is a comprehensive systematic treatment of the golden trapdoor spiders (tribe Euoplini) of Australia, revealing a diverse assemblage of mygalomorph spiders in multiple evolutionary lineages. It presents new data on phylogenetic relationships, morphology, and behaviour in the tribe. Immediate practical outcomes include a new generic classification of the tribe which more accurately represents the diversity contained within it, a full revision of the new genus Cryptoforis, and a targeted revision of the short-range endemic palisade-building Euoplos from south-eastern Queensland. My thesis demonstrates the strength of a ‘holistic’ total-evidence systematic approach, whereby different data types are iteratively compared and integrated, and in particular, the utility of this approach to understanding the taxonomy and evolution of poorly known mygalomorph taxa.

<p>Composition and diversity of aquatic insects as influenced by anthropogenic activities in River Chanchaga, Niger State, Nigeria was investigated for a period of six months spanning from April through September, 2014 in three stations. Habitat and water quality were done using qualitative habitat evaluation index (QHEI) and America public health association (APHA) method of water analysis respectively. Aquatic insects were sampled with a kick net of about 250 µm mesh size. QHEI values in the three stations showed that the stations were moderately impaired with station 1 having the highest value (64.3%), while canopy cover of the three sampled stations were relatively poor. Physicochemical parameters values were within the maximum permissible limit of water quality variables by Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), Nigeria and Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) except dissolved oxygen and pH. A total of 6 orders, 16 families, 19 taxa and 101 individuals of aquatic insects were recorded during the study. The overall abundance, distribution and composition of aquatic insects were poor. Station 1 had the highest number of species composition (55) while station 3 had only 6 individuals of aquatic insects. Simpson dominance (D) and Shannon-weiner index were highest in station 1. Station 3 was more even in aquatic insect distribution (0.8965) while station 1 had the highest margalef richness index (d) of 4.969. The pollution sensitive species in the group of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) were poorly represented or even absent in some case probably owing to the deteriorating state of the sampled stations as a result of various human activities. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed a very weak relationship between the insects’ abundance and distribution and environmental variables measured. <em>Coelhydrus</em> sp., Chlorostidae, <em>Chironomus</em> sp., <em>Philodytes</em> sp., Cordulidae and <em>Neoperla</em> sp. were strongly associated with axis 1 and this association was explained by dissolved oxygen, phosphate and water depth. Bray-curtis similarity index performed revealed that samples were more clustered by months than by stations. The research was able to provide a baseline study as a biomonitoring tool for the assessment of the integrity of water bodies in Niger State and Nigeria in general.</p>

Zoological collections can be considered important registries of freshwater biodiversity for academical and research activities. The objective of this study was to organize a database of the diversity of benthic indicators of water quality collected in many freshwater ecosystems. The Benthic Macroinvertebrates Reference Collection of the Laboratory Ecology of Benthos, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais was created in 1997. This collection comprises 16,500 registers from different lotic and lentic ecosystems in Brazil and other countries. The taxa (with one or more organisms) are preserved in tubes, glasses, and wardrobes. In the tomb notebooks are registered: the taxonomical identification, origin, collection method, number of individuals, sample number and field observations. Besides the maintenance of the Reference Collection, a database is being constructed with the benthic biodiversity information. Up to this moment, the database has almost 71,000 registers preserved in 6,000 tubes and in 174 glasses. The incorporation of new organisms to the Collection is of c. 7,100.00 (+ 7,471.67) organisms per year. The aquatic insects are the main abundant and taxonomic diverse in the Collection. Diptera, Ephemeroptera, and Trichoptera were the most numerical important groups, with respectively 37.9%, 16.7%, and 14.5%. Among the Dipterans, Chironomidae comprises 59 genera. This Reference Collection represents an important tool for knowledge of benthic biodiversity in lotic and lentic ecosystems, allowing later taxonomical identification, and the development of population dynamics and community structure studies, due to the increase deposit of knew material. Moreover, it is of paramount importance to guarantee future taxonomical, biogeographical, phylogenetical and ecological studies, using this material. Key words: benthic macroinvertebrates, scientific collection, database.

This study was carried out on Shushica River, a branch of Vjosa River, located in the Vlora district south west Albania, during 2017. This river flows from the Kuci area parallel with the main road in all her longitude. The recent process of rehabilitation of this road and the process of human population growth in this region is expected to have a severe impact in watershed and water quality of this area through reduction of microhabitat diversity and its associated biodiversity. During this study three stations were chosen randomly on the stream and samples were taken seasonally (Spring and Summer 2017). Here we are presenting the preliminary data based on the identification of a total number of 841 organisms. The collected samples include organisms from class: Annelid (Oligochaeta) and Insecta. Insects are dominating throughout all the sampling period. Between organisms of class Insecta dominant are the families Chironomidae and Simulidae (Diptera), Elmidae (Coleoptera), Hydropsychidae (Trichoptera), and Heptagenidae (Ephemeroptera). Based on the collected data the EPT index (abundances in the sample of the organisms belonging to the orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera in comparison to the total number of organisms in the sample) was calculated. Based on the published data of different recent studies the water quality of the river is related directly with the higher relative abundance of those taxa.

Spatio-temporal dynamics and hydro-ecology of intermittent streams in eastern Australia

Objective To explore the factors related to the tolerance to enteral nutrition (EN) in gastric carcinoma patients undergoing surgical treatment and the implementation strategy of EN.Methods Fifty-four patients with gastric carcinoma undergoing surgery from November 2011 to September 2012 in the Affiliated Hospital of Medical College of Qingdao University were enrolled.EN were applied with sequential and gradual strategies.The tolerance status to EN was recorded.Factors related to the patient tolerance to EN were analyzed using single-factor and multiple-factor Logistic regression analysis.The incidences of gastrointestinal symptoms during EN application were recorded.Results Among the 54 patients,49 (90.74％) patients could tolerate EN.Single-factor analysis and multiple-factor Logistic regression analysis both showed that tumor staging (single-factor analysis:x2 =7.287,P =0.007 ; multiple-factor analysis:t =2.559,P =0.014) and surgical approach (singlefactor analysis:x2 =7.825,P =0.005 ; multiple-factor analysis:t =2.254,P =0.043) were major factors affecting patient tolerance to EN.Among the patients tolerant to EN,abdominal distension (19/49,38.8％) was the major gastrointestinal symptom of EN.Conclusion The sequential and gradual EN application strategy is suitable for the patients with gastric cancinoma after surgery,and can be widely used in clinical practice. Key words: Gastric neoplasm; Enteral nutrition; Tolerance

Aquatic insects had been well used as a tool in monitoring water quality and this study is aimed to gauge their potential in Johor. The rapid development in the state of Johor may cause pollution to water resources that require a more efficient water quality monitoring program. The objectives of this study were to (i) collect, identify, determine and produce aquatic insect diversity data in selected rivers in Johor, (ii) relate the presence of aquatic insect diversity with some of the physical features of rivers in Johor. Seven sampling areas were selected based on their importance to local communities and geographical distribution: Taman Negara Johor Endau Rompin (PETA) (TNJER-PETA), Taman Hutan Lagenda Gunung Ledang (THLGL), Hutan Lipur Soga Perdana (HLSP), Hutan Lipur Gunung Belumut (HLGB), Hutan Lipur Sungai Bantang (HLSB), Hutan Lipur Gunung Pulai 1 (HLGP1) and Sungai Sayong Pinang. Insect samples were collected using a kick net method and slight modifocation made according to type of microhabitats. A total of 11,647 individuals of aquatic insects consisting of 68 families from nine orders were sampled. About 69% of insects collected were indicators of good water quality; among them are families Hydropsychidae from order Trichoptera, Baetidae from Order Ephemeroptera, and Simuliidae from Order Diptera. Based on family diversity analyzed using Shannon Index (H’), TNJER-PETA is recorded having the highest index (H’ = 3.215) followed by HLSP (H’ = 2.791) and HLGB (H’ = 2.482). Comparison made and based on physical characteristics, the study sites were classified into three categories (i) the most preferred sites by aquatic insects (HLSB, THLGL, HLGP1, and HLGB), (ii) intermediate preferred sites (TNJER-PETA and HLSP) and (iii) least preferred site (Sg. Sayong). In conclusion, community structure of benthic organisms were influenced by many factors such as presence of variety of microhabitat, predation, surrounding environments, food availability, physical and chemical characteristics of water. Moreover, higher heterogeneity of habitat promote high abundance and diversity of aquatic insects. Any changes happened that involves human interference in the habitats, will affect the abundance of aquatic insects. Last but not least, results suggested that the quality of river water in Johor can be monitored using insects as biological indicators due to the abundance, distribution, and rapid response of aquatic insects to environmental conditions.

Urbanization leads to drastic modifications of the terrestrial and aquatic environment. However, urban ponds may provide valuable habitats for different taxa, including aquatic insects and amphibians. We aim to understand how a set of biotic and abiotic factors influence aquatic insect diversity in 18 urban ponds in the German metropolis Berlin, one of the greenest whilst most densely populated European cities. Greenspace is important for the terrestrial stages of some aquatic insects and amphibians, providing crucial resources. Thus, greenspace was assumed to have positive effects on aquatic insect diversity, whereas built-up area was assumed to affect diversity negatively. Because some aquatic insects prey on tadpoles, their abundance and diversity were assumed to depend on tadpole abundance, which in turn, depends on other food (i.e., phytoplankton) availability in ponds. We visited the ponds twice a year, in spring and summer, and collected data on aquatic insects that are known to prey on tadpoles, tadpole abundance, phytoplankton biomass, the presence or absence of large insect predators, as well as physical–chemical parameters. We assumed higher total aquatic insect abundance, genera richness, alpha-diversity, and evenness, as well as abundance and genera richness of different aquatic insect taxonomic groups to be associated with high tadpole abundance in ponds surrounded by high amount of greenspace and low levels of built-up area. Accordingly, we expected aquatic insects to be modulated by phytoplankton biomass, the presence of newts and fish, and to be affected by ponds’ abiotic conditions. Our results showed that biological interactions and abiotic water conditions override urban effects in ponds’ terrestrial surroundings on aquatic insect diversity levels, whereas aquatic insects’ taxonomic groups responded differently on different land-use types around ponds. We explain our findings due to different dependences and demands towards terrestrial and/or aquatic habitats by different taxonomic groups of aquatic insects, and differences in their colonization behavior.

change due to natural and human factors. The study area, located within the Native Dog Creek sub-catchment of the Logan River - which drains into Moreton Bay, south east Queensland - holds a detailed history of environmental change spanning most of the Holocene epoch. This history is preserved in the estuarine sedimentary record and is a valuable indicator of natural environmental change. More recently, human-induced changes within the study area have been superimposed on the natural process of environmental change. In order to develop a conceptual bio-geomorphic model of the coastal wetlands of Native Dog Creek, this thesis examined - on an integrated catchment basis - the evolution and connectivity of four coastal wetland community types (Melaleuca, Casuarina, saltmarsh and mangroves). The research consisted of four discrete studies within the study area: a geomorphic investigation that provided a framework for understanding how the wetlands evolved during the Holocene epoch; an acid sulfate soil (ASS) study that surveyed the distribution and concentration of sulfides; a palynological study that examined the natural directions of ecosystem change; and an investigation of the impact of specific human activities on these ecosystems. Detailed stratigraphic modelling found that the Logan River system (and its Native Dog Creek sub-catchment) has evolved from an infilling estuary since the peak of the Holocene transgression 6500 years before present. Recognition of the major controls that influenced geomorphic coastal development during the Holocene, provided important insights into the distribution and genesis of estuarine pyritic sediments which strongly influence the soils within the study area. In general, the estuarine central basin and fluvial delta sediments posed the greatest risk to the environment from acidification if disturbed. The major focus of the ASS study was to survey the distribution of ASS and to identify other areas most vulnerable to acidification. A predictive approach that combined chemical and stratigraphic analysis was used. Results showed that these areas are intrinsically related to their environment of deposition. The study found, for example, that the alternation of excessively wet and dry conditions - combined with high organic carbon levels and variations in microtopography - provided ideal conditions for the re-formation of pyrite in the stream channel within the Melaleuca wetlands. The palaeo-environmental study reconstructed the evolution of Holocene coastal wetland vegetation during the marine transgression and subsequent shoreline progradation. Pollen records from the four representative wetland communities (previously mentioned) were examined. The results found the mid-late Holocene vegetation history was controlled by the development of geomorphic features that have affected freshwater input, drainage and salinity. In response to the progradation of the shoreline after sea level stabilised, changes in fossil pollen from mangroves and saltmarsh taxa during the early-mid Holocene, to freshwater taxa during the late Holocene, are estimated to have taken 800 years. Thus, pollen analysis when used in combination with stratigraphic modelling, provided an important point of reference for rates of natural ecological change in response to evolutionary changes to the physical environment. The wetlands within the study area have suffered varying degrees of disturbance since European settlement in the 1820s. The most significant changes occurred during early European settlement, when vast areas of coastal lowlands were cleared for timber, sheep and cattle grazing and for agricultural purposes. A second period of change occurred from 1989 to 1995, when the Melaleuca community suffered dieback in response to hydrological modifications to Native Dog Creek for the development of a golf course. Results indicate that human-induced changes over the past 170 years have occurred at a rate far beyond the ability of the natural ecosystem to adapt or move to a more ecologically sustainable state, at least in the short-term. Hence the current environment is experiencing degradation through both decline in health and loss of indigenous species. The development of a conceptual bio-geomorphic model was based on the integration of results from all four studies, in an effort to provide a holistic understanding of the coastal wetland environment and of the impact of human-induced changes upon that environment. If these vulnerable ecosystems are to be maintained, successful and sustainable coastal management strategies must rely on a sound scientific understanding of the response of a coastal ecosystem to both human and environmental changes.

Malays have different tolerance values are translated in a variety of vocabulary such as the value of openness, pluralism, persebatian, tolerant, cooperativeness, shared causes, shy, responsible, fair and true, brave and courageous, wise and prudent, meetings and consensus, taking advantage of the time, farseeing, industrious and diligent, trustworthy values, science, Takwa to God, and other. Tolerance in the life of wilt occupy an important position in the life of wilt, tolerant person who is considered a virtuous person, kind, know yourself and know the customs and religion holds, otherwise people who do not tolerate people who are not considered beperasaan, unsure of themselves and Nafsi called lust, selfish person. People like this will be abused in society and denigrated in the association. Another character of the Malays are tolerant. Malays would prefer to be silent rather than reactive. Reactive attitude in an environment can lead to an atmosphere of pros and cons. The atmosphere is always avoided by the Malays. In historical fact, are rarely found in incidents provoked by the Malays. There are factors adopted by the Malay people of faith that religion does not advocate violence and brutality.

Dissolved oxygen as a constraint for the structure of mangrove fish assemblages and their patterns of mangrove utilisation: a comparison between natural and disturbed mangrove ecosystems through the Australian and Caledonian coastlines