Quantifying maize phenology using beneficial microorganisms and residue management under deep tillage system

<abstract> <bold>Abstract.</bold> The anchorage provided by the coronal roots of cereal crops is essential to keep the plants upright and prevent them falling over (lodging), the anchorage of wheat depends upon both soil strength and coronal root properties. A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of three cultivation systems (zero, shallow and deep tillage) on soil physical properties (bulk density, shear strength and penetration resistance), coronal root development and anchorage strength of winter wheat in a sandy loam soil; additionally the plant above ground mechanical properties were also measured. The results indicated that soil bulk density, shear strength and penetration resistance were significantly affected by cultivation systems with the greatest values (1.34 g cm^-3, 50.1 kPa and 0.943 MPa respectively) for zero tillage compared to shallow and deep tillage results. Likewise, cultivation systems significantly influenced the coronal root properties; number and total length of roots greater than 1 mm diameter, angle of spread and root plate diameter were all significantly greater in zero tillage systems compared to shallow and deep tillage systems. Consequently, the greatest plant anchorage moment of 0.72 Nm was found in zero tillage system in comparison to 0.65 and 0.49 Nm for shallow and deep tillage systems respectively. Additionally, unlike the number of tillers, plant height and center of gravity was found to be less in zero tillage compared to the shallow and deep tillage systems. These initial findings suggest that soil conditions can be optimized to increase anchorage moment and, thereby, reduce the incidence of root lodging.

Response of wheat and maize yields to different tillage practices across China: A meta-analysis

A field study was conducted in 2014 and 2015 in Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Wisconsin, and Missouri to determine the effects of tillage system and herbicide program on season-long emergence ofAmaranthusspecies in glufosinate-resistant soybean. The tillage systems evaluated were deep tillage (fall moldboard plow followed by (fb) one pass with a field cultivator in the spring), conventional tillage (fall chisel plow fb one pass with a field cultivator in the spring), minimum tillage (one pass of a vertical tillage tool in the spring), and no-tillage (PRE application of paraquat). Each tillage system also received one of two herbicide programs; PRE application of flumioxazin (0.09 kg ai ha–1) fb a POST application of glufosinate (0.59 kg ai ha−1) plusS-metolachlor (1.39 kg ai ha–1), or POST-only applications of glufosinate (0.59 kg ha−1). The deep tillage system resulted in a 62, 67, and 73% reduction inAmaranthusemergence when compared to the conventional, minimum, and no-tillage systems, respectively. The residual herbicide program also resulted in an 87% reduction inAmaranthusspecies emergence compared to the POST-only program. The deep tillage system, combined with the residual program, resulted in a 97% reduction inAmaranthusspecies emergence when compared to the minimum tillage system combined with the POST-only program, which had the highestAmaranthusemergence. Soil cores taken prior to planting and herbicide application revealed that only 28% of theAmaranthusseed in the deep tillage system was placed within the top 5-cm of the soil profile compared to 79, 81, and 77% in the conventional, minimum, and no-tillage systems. Overall, the use of deep tillage with a residual herbicide program provided the greatest reduction inAmaranthusspecies emergence, thus providing a useful tool in managing herbicide-resistantAmaranthusspecies where appropriate.

On-farm research was conducted to investigate the effects of nitrogen (N) and compost (C) on yield and yield components of spring maize (Zea mays L.) under conventional and deep tillage system (T) at the research farm of the University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan, during spring 2013. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with split-plot arrangement, using three replications. Three compost levels (0, 1, and 2 t ha−1) and two tillage systems (conventional and deep tillage) were allotted to the main plot, whereas N levels (60, 90, 120, and 150 kg N ha−1) were allotted to subplots in the form of urea. Nitrogen and compost levels had significantly affected all the parameters. Plots treated with 150 kg N ha−1 increased ear length (31 cm), grains ear−1 (413), thousand-grain weight (240.2 g), grain yield (3097 kg ha−1), straw yield (9294 kg ha−1), harvest index (24.7 percent), and shelling percentage (81.7 percent). Compost applied at 2 t ha−1 increased ear length (32 cm), grains ear−1 (430), thousand-grain weight (242.3 g), grain yield (2974 kg ha−1), straw yield (8984 kg ha−1), harvest index (24.6 percent), and shelling percentage (83.2 percent). Tillage system had significant effect on all parameters except ear length and harvest index. Deep tillage system produced more grains ear−1 (365), thousand-grain weight (233.3 g), grain yield (2630 kg ha−1), straw yield (8549 kg ha−1), and shelling percentage (79.6 percent). It was concluded from the results that application of 120 kg N ha−1 + 2 C t ha−1 under a deep tillage system could improve spring maize yield and yield-contributing traits under semi-arid conditions.

Seedbed preparation and sowing methods play significant role in obtaining good crop yields. To explore the agronomic productivity and economic efficacy of different tillage and sowing methods in cotton, a two year field study was conducted during 2010 and 2011. The experiment comprised of two tillage systems viz; conventional tillage (one time disc harrow + two cultivations + planking) and deep tillage (chiseling twice + one cultivation + planking) along with three sowing methods viz; flat sowing, ridge sowing and bed sowing. Split plot design was used with three replications. Deep tillage amplified seed cotton yields by 18.7% and 11.14% during 2010 and 2011, respectively. Bed sowing exhibited higher yield contributing traits such as number of opened bolls per plant and boll weight as compared to ridge and flat sowing. Deep tillage with bed sowing gave maximum net returns of USD 1407.88 with BCR of 1.81 during the year 2010, while during 2011 it was USD 783.50 with BCR 1.45. Bulk density of the soil was found lower in the upper layer of soil surface as compared to lower surface under deep tillage systems as compared to conventional tillage systems. It was concluded that deep tillage produced more number of plants which contributed towards highest seed cotton yield. Moreover deep tillage was more costly except in bed sowing of cotton crop. The interactive effect of tillage systems and sowing methods were found non significant during both years of study.

No Brasil, a batata é usualmente cultivada após a cultura do milho utilizando-se preparo de solo capaz de atingir por volta de 20 cm de profundidade, em que os impedimentos físicos existentes abaixo da camada preparada não são removidos. Desse modo, postula-se que a realização de preparo profundo de solo associado à sucessão com outras poáceas, tais como as forrageiras, seja uma alternativa para proporcionar maior desenvolvimento da batateira. O presente estudo, realizado com a cultivar Atlantic, teve como objetivo comparar o sistema de preparo convencional (PC) de solo adotado para a cultura da batata, em sucessão à cultura do milho, a um sistema de preparo profundo (PP), em sucessão a três diferentes poáceas (milho, capim Marandu capim Tanzânia) quanto à dinâmica do crescimento da batateira. A produção em matéria seca (MS, t/ha) da parte aérea das poáceas variou conforme: Tanzânia PP (26,56) &gt; Marandu PP (19,94) &gt; Milho PP (5,57) = Milho PC (5,720). Com relação ao desenvolvimento da cultura da batata, para produção respectivamente de raízes e de folhas (g/planta de MS), o tratamento Milho PP (5,56 e 85,51) foi superior ao Milho PC (4,34 e 64,83), não se verificando diferença estatística entre os demais tratamentos. Para a produção de hastes, o tratamento Milho PC (5,53 g/planta MS) foi inferior a todos os tratamentos e para a produção de tubérculos, Marandu PP e Milho PP (152,16 e 149,01 g/planta MS) foram superiores ao tratamento milho PC (115,73 g/planta MS). Verificou-se assim, que o preparo profundo de solo, de forma geral, proporcionou maior desenvolvimento da batateira e que os seus efeitos em alguns parâmetros de crescimento variaram conforme a espécie de poácea utilizada em sucessão.

Conversion from conventional‐tillage (CT) to no‐tillage (NT) agriculture can affect pests and beneficial organisms in various ways. NT has been shown to reduce the relative abundance and feeding damage of pea leaf weevil (PLW),Sitona lineatusL. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in spring pea, especially during the early‐season colonization period in the Palouse region of northwest Idaho. Pitfall traps were used to quantify tillage effects on activity‐density of PLW in field experiments conducted during 2001 and 2002. As capture rate of pitfall traps for PLW might be influenced by effects of tillage treatment, two mark‐recapture studies were employed to compare trapping rates in NT and CT spring pea during 2003. Also in 2003, direct sampling was used to estimate PLW densities during the colonization period, and to assess PLW feeding damage on pea. PLW activity‐density was significantly lower in NT relative to CT during the early colonization period (May) of 2001 and 2002, and during the late colonization period (June) of 2002. Activity‐density was not different between treatments during the early emergence (July) or late emergence (August) periods in either year of the study. Trap capture rates did not differ between tillage systems in the mark‐recapture studies, suggesting that pitfall trapping provided unbiased estimates of PLW relative abundances. PLW absolute densities and feeding damage were significantly lower in NT than in CT. These results indicate that NT provides a pest suppression benefit in spring pea.

A two-year field study was conducted under semi-arid conditions in Pakistan to assess the role of tillage systems and farmyard manure on soil, plant nutrients and organic matter content. Four tillage systems (zero, minimum, conventional and deep tillage) and three farm manure levels were used. Maize crop was grown up to maturity. Uptake of N, P and K in maize shoots improved in tillage systems compared to non-tillage and treatments where farmyard manure was applied. Soil N status decreased in the deep tillage systems, whereas it increased in all other tillage systems and in the farmyard manure amended treatments. Increase in soil P values was observed under minimum and conventional tillage, whereas deep tillage resulted in a decrease. Farmyard manure amendments increased soil P and soil K in all systems. Tillage did not affect soil K levels. Results demonstrate that reduced tillage is practicable in arid and semi-arid regions since it improves soil fertility.

The experiment was carried out in the research field of the College of Agriculture and Forestry / University of Mosul / Tourist Forest Area, during growing season (2023-2024). The experiment included a study the effect of three factors. The first and second factors were studied for their effects on mechanical traits, and the third factor was added to it to study horticultural traits. The first factor included: tillage systems (surface tillage and deep tillage) and the second factor included irrigation systems (drip irrigation system and surface irrigation system). The third factor was spraying with boron fertilizer at three concentrations (0, 75, and 100 mg L-1). Spraying was done during three stages of plant growth. The first one month after transplanting, the second spraying 15 days after the first spray, and the third spray 15 days after the second spray in terms of growth characteristics vegetative and yield of broccoli plants and study of mechanical and economic characteristics. Thus, the experiment for mechanical traits included 4 treatments (2 × 2). The study was carried out in the field using a split-plot system within a completely randomized block design (RCBD), where tillage systems were placed in the main plots, and irrigation systems were placed in the sub plots, while the experiment on horticultural traits included 12 treatments (2×2×3), the study was carried out in the field using a split-split plot system within a completely randomized block design (RCBD), where tillage systems were placed in the main plots. The irrigation systems in the sub plots and the sub-sub plots included boron concentrations, and each treatment was repeated three times. The results were analyzed statistically according to the design used, and the means were compared according to Duncan's multinomial test at the probability level of 0.05. The results can be summarized as follows:- The characteristics represented by irrigation time, human effort, number of irrigation times and the amount of wasted water were affected by the tillage systems factor, as the surface tillage system showed a significant superiority in all characteristics over the deep tillage system. The drip irrigation system showed significant superiority in of irrigation time, human effort, and number of irrigation times per season. The plants of the surface tillage system showed significant superiority in the yield characteristics that included (Weight of secondary heads, plant yield of secondary heads, and yield of secondary heads) compared to plants of the deep tillage system. Plants treated with boron showed significant superiority in all yield characteristics.

Combining deep tillage (DT) with lime application at greater depths may improve sugarcane yield. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of conventional tillage (CT) and DT systems and liming on sugarcane productivity and soil physical attributes. The experiment was conducted in a clayey‐textured Rhodic Hapludox soil cultivated with sugarcane for two growing seasons (first and third ratoons) using a randomized block design with four treatments and four repetitions. The treatments consisted of DT without liming (DT0), DT with liming (DT2), CT without liming (CT0) and CT with liming (CT2). In addition to sugarcane stalk and sugar yields, macroporosity (MA), microporosity (MI), total soil porosity (TP), weighted average diameter (WAD), aggregate stability index (ASI), soil penetration resistance (SPR), pH, potential acidity (H + Al), total soil organic carbon (SOC), particulate organic carbon (POC), mineral‐associated organic carbon (MOC), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) were analysed. DT2 promoted the best soil conservation effect on sugarcane. In general, DT, regardless of lime application, reduced SOC and POC in soil surface layer. Nevertheless, in the long term, localized lime addition resulted in significant reductions in compaction, reaching values below 2 MPa. The soil fertility improvement provided by DT2 promoted increased sucrose concentrations and stalks yield. Considering that there was an improvement in the physical quality and fertility of soil for better plant development, the deep tillage with localized lime addition can be considered an effective alternative for sugarcane cultivation.

Choosing the appropriate management system is essential for sustainable agricultural practices. Yet, soil-specific properties at the subsurface are seldom considered when choosing the appropriate tillage system. This study assessed the effect of tillage depth on physical–hydraulic properties in three contrasting soil classes in the establishment of perennial crops. Tillage practices were evaluated in soils with natural dense layers (Inceptisols and Ultisols), and soils with very small and stable granular structure (Oxisols). From least to most aggressive, tested tillage systems included surface furrowing + plant holes (MT); plowing followed by two diskings + furrowing (CT); plowing followed by two diskings + subsoiling (SB); and plowing followed by two diskings + rotary hoeing (DM). Physical indicators with the greatest explanatory power were relative field capacity (RFC, 97%), aeration capacity (AC, 95%), macroporosity (Pmac, 95%), the S index (Sgi, 89%), and bulk density (Bd, 81%). DM caused the greatest modification in soil structure, especially at the surface. It increased values of AC, Pmac, and Sgi, and reduced Bd values. Only deep tillage systems (DM and SB) improved soil structure in deeper layers. Highest Bd values were observed for MT (1.47 g cm−3), and lowest for DM (1.21 g cm−3). Soil classes responded differently to soil tillage systems. DM was most effective in soils with densified layers (Inceptisol and Ultisol). Effects were less expressive in the studied Oxisol. Comparing MT and DM, Pmac increased by more than 100% in the studied Ultisol, but by less than 20% in the Oxisol. No tillage system affected the Oxisol’s soil structure in deeper layers, due to its small and stable granular structure. The choice of optimal tillage strategies should consider soil-specific properties, especially at greater depths, to guarantee more productive and sustainable crop systems.

Reducing the tillage and application of mulch are important strategies for soil and water conservation and sustainability of agricultural systems. Soil can be a source or sink for carbon (C) depending on management strategies and plays a major role in the global C cycle. These interacting practices can alter nutrient movement and availability to the crops, reduce water loss, slow down organic-matter (OM) decomposition, and thus enhance C sequestration. A 2-year field study was conducted to quantify the tillage and mulching effect on soil organic C (SOC), OM, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) at two depths (i.e., 0–15 and 15–30 cm deep) in the soil profile and N, P, and K concentrations (g kg−1) in plant shoots at harvest on a Typic Calciargids in wheat–maize rotation. The four tillage systems used were zero tillage (ZT), minimum tillage (MT), conventional tillage (CT), and deep tillage (DT), and four mulch rates [control, 2 (M2), 4 (M4), and 6 (M6) Mg ha−1 year−1 wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) straw] were applied in combination with each tillage system, keeping recommended rates of fertilizers. There was a linear positive response of mulch application on SOC for both years, but it was more pronounced during the second year. Greater values were found in ZT and the lowest in CT at all depths, although greater SOC content was found in upper layers than in deeper ones. Greater shoot N, P, and K concentrations were found in MT, CT, and DT, whereas the lowest concentration was found in ZT. Mulch application has no effect on N, P, and K concentrations in shoots. The soil N concentration was not affected by tillage and mulch, yet greater soil N content was found at 0–15 cm than 15–30 cm deep. There was significant effect of tillage on soil P and K during one year as greater P and K concentrations were found under MT, CT, and DT compared to ZT. More N, P, K, and OM concentrations were found at 0–15 cm deep than at 15–30 cm deep during the whole study period. Mulch effect was significant on K, and significantly greater amounts were found at greater levels of mulch application. The increases in the soil OM were 34.5, 35.75, and 24% at 0–8, 8–16, and 16–24 cm deep respectively from the first year to the second year. Tillage effect on soil organic-matter content was not significant. Tillage increased grain production for both years. For the first year, 22.9 and 27% greater yields were found in CT and DT, whereas in the second year yields were 10.6, 17.9, and 57% greater, respectively, in MT, CT, and DT as compared to ZT. Grain production was increased at a result of mulch application by 12.9, 20.3, and 10.6% during the first year and 11.45, 23.74, and 10.9% during the second year as compared to control (i.e., without mulch). Results show the importance of mulch application and crop residue retention. Both can increase the SOC content and water-holding capacity, which will result in improved production and soil physical health over long and continuous use of mulch.

Tillage or plowing quality is usually evaluated by the soil bulk density and distribution of organic matter. Soil bulk density, which is the sign of compactness and porosity in turn, depends on type of implements, soil organic carbon, tillage method and plowing depth. Plowing depth causes a lot of pulling in tractors and in order to have deep plowings, heavy-duty tractors are needed. To determine the optimum depth of moldboard plow, the bulk density and soil organic carbon of cultivated soil were investigated in this research. The experiments were conducted, using a three-bottom plow with three plowing depths and four depth of soil, in a split plot design, which lasted for three years. Main plots, consisted of three plowing methods (shallow approximately 12 cm, semi-deep approximately 22 cm and deep till age approximately 32 cm) and subplots, consisted of four soil depths (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40 cm). The amounts of soil density, soil organic carbon, soil water infiltration and crop yields were measured. The results showed that, deep tillage had the greatest effects on soil densities, soil organic carbon, infiltration rates and crop yields. Mean value of soil bulk density was 1.65 g cm(-3) in shallow tillage which decreased by increasing the plowing depth to 1.53 and 1.151 g cm(-3) in semi-deep and deep tillage, respectively. However, soil bulk density associated with deep tillage was generally higher than that of semi-deep tillage but the differences between the semi-deep and deep tillage were not significant. The soil water infiltration increased from 1.234 cm h(-1), in shallow tillage to 1.405 cm h(-1) in deep tillage. Crop yield by the deep tillage was 6571 kg ha(-1), while the semi-deep tillage and shallow tillage yield were 6389 and 5717 kg ha(-1), respectively. By increasing the plowing depth, the soil organic carbon and crop yields improved but there were no significant differences between the semi-deep and deep tillage system.

Differential response of wheat to tillage management systems in a semiarid area of Morocco

Yield and disease incidence were evaluated in potato ( Solanum tuberosum cv. Atlantic) after six years of cultivation in succession with corn ( Zea mays cv. ‘AG 6080’) under conventional tillage (CT, depth of tillage: 0.20 m) or in succession with three grass types [Guinea grass ( Panicum maximum cv. Tanzânia), Palisade grass ( Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu) and corn] under deep tillage (DT, depth of tillage: 0.70 m). Total tuber yield was higher in DT in average 36% the value obtained in CT (17.76 t ha -1 ), with no effect of the grass type. Common scab ( Streptomyces scabies ) incidence was influenced by treatments, the highest (16.9%) and the lowest (9.5%) values being obtained in succession with corn and Guinea grass ( Panicum maximum cv. Tanzania), respectively, both under DT. The lowest incidence of tuber greening at field (2.58%) was also recorded in Guinea DT, significantly lower than obtained in Corn CT (6.33%), possibly due to a more efficient ridging operation. Grass types showed different values of aboveground dry matter production. Guinea grass (26.56 Mg ha -1 ) was the most and Corn under CT and DT (5.72 and 5.56 Mg.ha -1 , respectively, without ears) were the least productive ones. Soil density, macroporosity and resistance to penetration indices were significantly better with DT, the grass type affecting them in a minor degree. The deep tillage system is therefore recommended for potato cultivation regardless the grass type used for crop sucesssion.