Pyridostigmine bromide elicits progressive and chronic impairments in the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of male rats

Abstract

Gulf War Illness (GWI) is a multi-symptom illness that continues to affect over 250,000 American Gulf War veterans. The causes of GWI remain equivocal; however, prophylactic use of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor pyridostigmine bromide (PB), and the stress of combat have been identified as two potential causative factors. Both PB and stress alter acetylcholine (ACh), which mediates both cognition and anti-inflammatory responses. As inflammation has been proposed to contribute to the cognitive deficits and immune dysregulation in GWI, the goal of this study was to determine the long-term effects of PB and stress on the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in the central nervous system and periphery. We used our previously established rat model of GWI and in vivo microdialysis to assess cholinergic neurochemistry in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus following a mild immune challenge (lipopolysaccharide; LPS). We then examined LPS-induced changes in inflammatory markers in PFC and hippocampal homogenates. We found that PB treatment produces a long-lasting potentiation of the cholinergic response to LPS in both the PFC and hippocampus. Interestingly, this prolonged effect of PB treatment enhancing cholinergic responses to LPS was accompanied by paradoxical increases in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in these brain regions. Collectively, these findings provide evidence that neuroinflammation resulting from dysregulation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is a mechanistic mediator in the progression of the neurochemical and neurocognitive deficits in GWI and more broadly suggest that dysregulation of this pathway may contribute to neuroinflammatory processes in stress-related neurological disorders.