Abstract
Much clinical and trauma work has focused on interventions with individuals experiencing interpersonal violence and past traumas. Refugees' experiences include past and present and chronic intergroup and interpersonal traumas with cumulative linear and nonlinear dynamics. Refugees face unique social and political traumatogenic ecologies that can play at least an equivalent or even more significant role in traumatic stress compared with that of survivors of interpersonal trauma who do not experience atrocities such as exile, political and religious persecution, and torture. Evolving paradigms of intervention need to be developed to integrate individual and ecological models of recovery that focus on the whole person within her or his social and political ecology and on past as well as present traumatogenic experiences; in addition, these paradigms need to mobilize refugees' resilience.
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