Abstract
The age-old philosophical, biological, and social debate over the basic nature of humans as being “universally selfish” or “universally good” continues today highlighting sharply divergent views of natural social order. Here we analyze advances in biology, genetics and neuroscience increasing our understanding of the evolution, features and neurocircuitry of the human brain underlying behavior in the selfish–selfless spectrum. First, we examine evolutionary pressures for selection of altruistic traits in species with protracted periods of dependence on parents and communities for subsistence and acquisition of learned behaviors. Evidence supporting the concept that altruistic potential is a common feature in human populations is developed. To go into greater depth in assessing critical features of the social brain, the two extremes of selfish–selfless behavior, callous unemotional psychopaths and zealous altruists who take extreme measures to help others, are compared on behavioral traits, structural/functional neural features, and the relative contributions of genetic inheritance versus acquired cognitive learning to their mindsets. Evidence from population groups ranging from newborns, adopted children, incarcerated juveniles, twins and mindfulness meditators point to the important role of neuroplasticity and the dopaminergic reward systems in forming and reforming neural circuitry in response to personal experience and cultural influences in determining behavior in the selfish–selfless spectrum. The underlying neural circuitry differs between psychopaths and altruists with emotional processing being profoundly muted in psychopaths and significantly enhanced in altruists. But both groups are characterized by the reward system of the brain shaping behavior. Instead of rigid assignment of human nature as being “universally selfish” or “universally good,” both characterizations are partial truths based on the segments of the selfish–selfless spectrum being examined. In addition, individuals and populations can shift in the behavioral spectrum in response to cognitive therapy and social and cultural experience, and approaches such as mindfulness training for introspection and reward-activating compassion are entering the mainstream of clinical care for managing pain, depression, and stress.
Highlights
In the mid-1800s, the French Philosopher Auguste Comte constructed the word altruism from the Latin alteri (“others”) to name his vision of a moral call to place the needs of others over one’s self-interests
Social debate over “universal selfishness” or “universal goodness” characterizing human behavior. Both positions are partial truths based on the components of the Selfish–Selfless Spectrum being observed
As a lens into the social brain, the extremes of the Selfish–Selfless Spectrum defined by callous, unemotional psychopaths and dynamic, zealous altruists reveal the importance of both genetic and neuron-based heredity systems and reward processes in strongly influencing actions toward others and cooperative behavior
Summary
In the mid-1800s, the French Philosopher Auguste Comte constructed the word altruism from the Latin alteri (“others”) to name his vision of a moral call to place the needs of others over one’s self-interests. A middle position emphasizing a dual nature for humankind was presented in the 15th century essay by Pico della Mirandola Oration on the Dignity of Man, asserting that we can shape our own destiny by freely choosing whether to descend into brutish behavior or rise to the superior orders of the divine. This is a vision expanded upon by the Dalai Lama who wrote that “the most important thing in this existence of ours is to do something that can be of benefit to others. We analyze the neural systems and the role of heredity, both genetic and neuronbased (cultural and social), in the development of behavior in the selfish–selfless spectrum, with the goal of discovering how and why portions of the population experience dramatically differing levels of empathy and compassion that strongly influence their worldview and role in society
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