PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS OF STEREOTYPING AND PROFILING IN LAW ENFORCEMENT: HOW TO INCREASE ACCURACY BY USING MORE NON-RACIAL CUES

Abstract

ABSTRACT Stereotypes, stereotyping, profiles, and profiling are complicated issues scientifically and politically and pose serious challenges for law enforcement (LE) officers. This article posits that stereotyping can be a legitimate law enforcement tool if devoid of unlawful and unethical bias. The authors promote a new conceptual framework, through the introduction of three models, which would permit rational and de-stigmatized police stereotyping. To de-stigmatize some kinds of stereotyping under certain conditions bridges the gap between legitimate concerns about inequality held by community leaders, politicians, and scholars, and the realities of good, proactive, “what works” policing in the field. A profile is based on observable behavior while a stereotype is based on the internal perceptions of behavior. Negative and often inaccurate stereotypes amount to bias or prejudice, which may lead to racial profiling. However, human perceptions and judgments, including stereotypes, are full of EPA dimensions— i.e., Evaluation or valence (+—−), memory-Potency (inactivated—activated), and Accuracy (in accuracy—accuracy). Further, negative racial cues or stereotypes can be overridden by non-racial cues (e.g., situational-behavioral cues) in police judgment and decision-making. Based on classical and recent findings, three psychological models (i.e., the cue-reliance model, the cubic EPA model of stereotypes, and law enforcement categorical cue model) are developed in the hope that it will enhance law enforcement efficiency and judgment accuracy by minimizing racial cues and maximizing various non-racial (situational-behavioral) cues. LE applications and implications of these models are also delineated. Human stereotypes and profiles are basically rational categorizations, and it is natural and appropriate to use them.