Abstract
BackgroundPerformance enhancement (PE) is a natural and essential ingredient of competitive sport. Except for nutritional supplement contamination, accidental use of doping is highly unlikely. It requires deliberation, planning and commitment; and is influenced by a host of protective and risk factors.HypothesisIn the course of their career, athletes constantly set goals and make choices regarding the way these goals can be achieved. The cycle of choice – goal commitment – execution – feedback on goal attainment – goal evaluation/adjustment has numerous exit points, each providing an opportunity for behaviour change, which may or may not be related to the use of prohibited methods. The interplay between facilitating and inhibiting systemic and personality factors, constantly influenced by situational factors could result in an outcome vector of 'doping attitudes', which combines with subjective norms to influence intentions to choose prohibited PE methods. These influences also vary from one stage of athlete development to the next, making some athletes more vulnerable to engaging in doping practices than others, and more vulnerable at certain time periods – and not others.Testing the hypothesisModel-testing requires a series of carefully planned and coordinated studies. Correlational studies can establish relationships where the directionality is not-known or not important. Experimental studies with the manipulation of doping expectancies and risk factors can be used to demonstrate causality and evaluate potential intervention strategies. The final model can be tested via a behavioural simulation, with outcomes compared to those expected from literature precedence or used as a simulated computer game for empirical data collection.ImplicationsA hypothesized life-cycle model of PE identifies vulnerability factors across the stages of athlete development with the view of informing the design of anti-doping assessment and intervention. The model suggests that, instead of focusing on the actual engagement in prohibited PE practices, deterrence strategies are likely to be more effective if they target the influencing factors at the appropriate stage and identify groups of athletes and their respective career stages, which pose particular risks of engagement in doping practices. This enables a more effective intervention approach by targeting specific risk factors and expectancies.
Highlights
Performance enhancement (PE) is a natural and essential ingredient of competitive sport
The model we propose here can be characterised by i) the combination of trait, systemic and situational factors, ii) its developmental approach and iii) the assumed outcome expectancy that led to functional use of PE substances by athletes
Situational factors The hypothesised situational factors include the dynamics of peer interactions [44], salience of role models and significant others [45] and, most importantly, the availability of performance enhancement alternatives – both acceptable and illegal [37]. Most of these factors have a strong developmental aspect to them – as attitudes, role models, vulnerability to peer pressure, performance enhancement motivation and the ingredients of moral choice tend to change systematically form one stage of athlete's development to the. This multitude of influencing factors result in an outcome vector called 'doping attitudes', which, according to the Theory of Reasoned Action [77] and Theory of Planned Behaviour [78], combine with subjective norms to influence intentions to choose doping at one stage of the PE life-cycle
Summary
The amateur notions of the 'gentleman sport' have been surpassed by the need for effectiveness and efficiency in order to maintain the constant improvement of sports performance. Most of these factors have a strong developmental aspect to them – as attitudes, role models, vulnerability to peer pressure, performance enhancement motivation and the ingredients of moral choice tend to change systematically form one stage of athlete's development to the This multitude of influencing factors result in an outcome vector called 'doping attitudes', which, according to the Theory of Reasoned Action [77] and Theory of Planned Behaviour [78], combine with subjective norms to influence intentions to choose doping at one stage of the PE life-cycle. A holistic approach with the emphasis on choices, health issues and broader life goals to the individual and the systemic factors is needed in order for athletes to make informed decisions about their performance enhancement, which may lead – at the population level – to a sustainable change in doping behaviour. Anti-doping interventions are likely to benefit from a dual focus on the risk factors and doping expectancies, as well as from targeting the athlete population from preadolescents to adults at all stages of PE life-cycle
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