Psychological distress, stressful events, and well-being in Spanish women through the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic and two years later

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted human lives and posed significant threats to the mental health and well-being of the population, with women being particularly affected. This study investigates the well-being, stress levels, and psychological distress experienced by women while also identifying both risk and protective factors across different phases of the COVID-19 pandemic: (i) the Spanish national lockdown during the first wave of the pandemic; (ii) the second wave; (iii) 2 years after the beginning of the pandemic; and (iv) 2 years following the second wave. To conduct this investigation, a total of 4,047 women aged 16 – 87 years old and drawn from the general population, completed eight questionnaires and scales. The findings revealed percentages of psychological distress among women, revealing rates of 60.5% during the lockdown, 65.7% during the second wave, 55.3% between February and April 2022, and 49.7% between October 2022 and February 2023. High self-esteem was the most important protective factor against psychological distress among women and was most associated with their well-being. In addition, high resilience and social support provided further protective effects, although to a lesser extent. Conversely, experiencing a higher number of stressful events was a risk factor for increased distress and posing a threat to women’s well-being.