PROTOCOL: Incentives for climate mitigation in the land use sector: a mixed-methods systematic review of the effectiveness of payment for environment services (PES) on environmental and socio-economic outcomes in low- and middle-income countries.

This review places in context the role agricultural soils play in global carbon dynamics, and their potential interaction with climate change through soil carbon sequestration. The paper first examine the potential of soils as carbon sinks, agricultural practices and dynamics in soil organic carbon, emerging agreements on payments for environmental services (PES) that mitigate global warming through enhanced carbon sinks, exclusion of agricultural activities in PES under Kyoto Protocol, and the basis for inclusion of agricultural soil carbon sinks through sustainability based production systems. Soils are one of the planet's largest sinks for carbon and hold potential for expanded carbon sequestration through changes in management. The global soil organic carbon (SOC) inventory is estimated to be 1200-1600 billion metric tonnes, which is equal to or slightly greater than amounts stored in terrestrial vegetation (500-700 billion metric tonnes) and the atmosphere (750 billion metric tonnes), combined. Agricultural soils, having been depleted of much of their native carbon stocks, and occupying an estimated 1.7 billion hectares, have a more significant potential SOC sink capacity. Global estimates of this sink capacity are in the order of 20-30 billion metric tonnes over the next 50-100 years. The total global agricultural soils' SOC stocks are estimated at 167-170 billion metric tonnes. When soil is put into cultivation, associated biological and physical processes result in a release of SOC over time, often 50% or more, depending on soil conditions and agricultural practices. Consequently, there is potential to increase SOC in most cultivated soils. Many management practices have been demonstrated to increase SOC, including incorporation of crop residues, and increases in cropping intensity and fertilization. Past and on-going biophysical studies have been able to identify and demonstrate organic based soil fertility management practices, with modest applications of mineral fertilizers that would concurrently lead to improvement in SOC levels, nutrient loss amelioration and improved agricultural productivity. Management practices that could add 4 T C ha-1 yr-1 in the system have been demonstrated. Due to the potential impacts of climate change on the environment as a result of increasing concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide, the world community established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. The responsibility of IPCC is to undertake an assessment of the science, impacts, adaptation, and mitigation options in relation to climate change and advise the Conference of Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). At the sixth Conference of the Parties (COP-6) in Marrakech, Morocco, limits were placed on the nature of activities that could be undertaken and the amount of carbon credits that could be generated through land use change and forestry activities to benefit from PES. These limits excluded all activities associated with management of natural forests and agricultural lands. This review argues that a demonstration of sustainability of carbon sinks in agricultural soils under empirically derived predictable management practices could serve as a basis for arguing the case for inclusion of carbon sinks in such systems in payments for environmental services under the Clean Development (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.

Payment for environmental services (PES) to mangrove forest is judged appropriate for applied in Jailolo Sub-district of West Halmahera District as a protection of mangrove ecosystems. This is due to the high utilization of mangrove environment services. If not managed properly can potentially threaten the preservation of mangrove forests. Benefits that have been perceived by the public such as a water source, pond, travel, as well as the protection of coastal areas. These benefits must be preserved for the future availability of environmental services namely through the payment of the services already provided the commonly named as payment for environmental services (PES). PES is also very supported by West Halmahera District Regulation No. 4 of 2012 year and constitution No. 32 of 2009 year about the protection and environmental management. Basically, PES is a scheme that aims to restore and protect the availability of goods and environmental services sustainable. Therefore, PES initiation for mangrove forest economy preservation in Jailolo Sub-district needs to be studied. This research aims to: 1) Identify environmental services of mangrove forest ecosystems that are potential for PES; 2) Examines the perceptions of the public service providers (providers) towards the implementation of the plan; and 3) How much willingness to accept (WTA) community as a providers of environmental services (providers) if PES is applied. The research results showed that the service potentially initiated PES are sea-water intrusion regulating service and the cultural service of mangrove tourism. For perception and public participation, environmental service providers about the mangrove environment services were judged to be sufficient for determining PES plan assignment, where communities want to participate if the maintenance costs were IDR3.350,00/trees/year

Payments for environmental services (PES), also sometimes called payments for ecosystem services, emerged from the perceived need of conservation practitioners around the world for more cost-effective and equitable ways of using scarce funds. Also sometimes referred to as ecocompensation, rewards, or cash transfers, PES consist of direct conditional payments from the users of environmental services (or their collective representatives) to landowners or stewards who provide them by adopting environmentally friendlier practices of protection or restoration. Environmental service (ES) users effectively rent out certain partial land rights from landholders (e.g., limiting their rights to deforest). This only works when ES provision can be well-monitored and enforced and when landholders can flexibly and legitimately change their preferred modes of production. Otherwise, ES users might prefer to buy out environmentally sensitive lands entirely (e.g., creating municipal reserves for spring protection in a watershed), although becoming responsible for land stewardship may over time be costly. While some PES started as long-term public environmental subsidy programs (e.g., the US Conservation Reserve Program), the big push for PES in this millennium came from economists arguing for more direct, performance-based incentives. The PES approach has become more popular among both scholars and conservation practitioners over the last few decades, with the majority of PES programs focused on forest conservation. Geographically, PES have been most popular in the Americas (North, South, Central) and in China. PES can predominantly be seen as a private lands counterpart to public protected areas, although in most countries PES are far less extensive. Increasingly, PES are applied alongside a mix of policy approaches, as a tool in a toolbox of conservation mechanisms, with the aim of incentivizing landholders to engage in sustainable practices, and promising potential long-term provenance of ES while also supporting livelihoods. PES contracts can range from short term to the indefinite duration of perpetual conservation easements. With more application of PES globally, and a font of new experiences to study, a growing body of research has emerged, seeking to evaluate the environmental and poverty reduction impacts of PES. These studies assess the successes and limitations of PES schemes, and promote best practices in preconditions, design, and implementation, as well as contextual backdrops that can affect the effectiveness and efficiency of PES schemes. Some obstacles and conditions may not be designed away, such as land-tenure insecurity and organizational capacity to pay for ES: these jeopardize the emergence and expansion of PES schemes, especially in tropical forest frontiers. However, despite the worrying record of government-led PES schemes in terms of design and implementation errors, their ability to organize collective payments at scale and to intelligently bundle them into complex policy mixes may be important future arguments in their favor.

Payment for Environmental Services (PES) is a globally expanding concept used to address environmental degradation. PES advocates argue that conservation of ecosystems can and should be enhanced by voluntary transactions among environmental service providers and buyers. PES policy and intervention instruments, however, are not neutral development tools entering cultural and sociopolitical voids. Apart from being manufactured by scientific, policy, and development networks with particular market-environmentalist visions, values, and interests, PES also deeply interacts with the contradictions and unequal power structures of those local societies where the policy tool is introduced. This paper shows how comprehending the historic and current struggles over natural resources among stakeholders who provide and demand "environmental services" is fundamental to understanding PES workings and outcomes. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork in the Chamachán watershed, Northern Ecuadorian Highlands, we analyze the dynamics and entwining of "visible," "hidden" and "invisible" power mechanisms in shaping PES and natural resource control. Our findings show how power asymmetries among stakeholders pervaded negotiations and agreements. The paper highlights the political character of market-based conservation efforts and the power plays that surround PES interventions.

Unsustainable practices in the land use sector contribute to climate change through the release of greenhouse gases. Payment for environmental services (PESs) provide economic incentives to reduce the negative environmental impacts of land use and are a popular approach to mitigate climate change in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Some PES programmes also aim to improve socioeconomic outcomes and reduce poverty. This systematic review examines the effect of programmes on environmental and socioeconomic outcomes. We identified 44 quantitative impact evaluations and 60 qualitative studies of PES programmes for inclusion in the review, to assess both the effects of PES and identify context, design and implementation features that may influence PES effectiveness. The studies covered 18 programmes from 12 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, East Asia and Pacific, South Asia and Sub‐Saharan Africa. The review finds that PES may increase household income, reduce deforestation and improve forest cover, but the findings are, however, based on low and very low quality evidence from a small number of programmes and should be treated with caution. Qualitative evidence indicates that several factors influence whether PES programmes are likely to be effective in different contexts and suggests that the inclusion of strong governance structures and the effective targeting of both locations and participants may improve intervention effectiveness. Funders, implementing agencies and researchers should collaborate to develop a coordinated programme of rigorous, mixed‐methods impact evaluation implemented across contexts. Until such evidence is available, PES programmes remain a high‐risk strategy for climate change mitigation.

Better information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation potential in the agricultural sector is necessary to manage these emissions and identify responses that are consistent with the food security and economic development priorities of countries. Critical activity data (what crops or livestock are managed in what way) are poor or lacking for many agricultural systems, especially in developing countries. In addition, the currently available methods for quantifying emissions and mitigation are often too expensive or complex or not sufficiently user friendly for widespread use.The purpose of this focus issue is to capture the state of the art in quantifying greenhouse gases from agricultural systems, with the goal of better understanding our current capabilities and near-term potential for improvement, with particular attention to quantification issues relevant to smallholders in developing countries. This work is timely in light of international discussions and negotiations around how agriculture should be included in efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change impacts, and considering that significant climate financing to developing countries in post-2012 agreements may be linked to their increased ability to identify and report GHG emissions (Murphy et al 2010, CCAFS 2011, FAO 2011).

ABSTRACT: Payment for Environmental Service (PES) is an environmental regulatory concept that as a voluntary transaction where a well-defined environmental service is being “bought” by at least one environmental service buyer from at least one environmental service provider, if and only if the environmental service buyer secures the environmental service as a conditionality. There is increasing interest and experience in PES in both developed and developing countries. In Asia, PES concept is manifested in forest and/or water resources management policy, such as in China, Japan. In the present state of the world, PES has come to the fore in step with concerns to save the environment in a holistic manner. Now, PES has become a way or a mechanism of stakeholders to maintain and manage the environment by providing economic incentives/compensation from users to providers of environmental services. In Aceh, this mechanism is implemented for protecting river stream area, such as in Krueng Montala, Great Aceh. PES mechanisms should be supported with force of law, also synergized with policies and projects related to integrated water resources management, rural development and rural livelihoods, and land use zoning. PES mechanisms can increase the quality of nature and protect the environment also can help to provide alternative income for local people rather than they destroyed the environment. The Implementation of Payment for Environmental Services in Safeguarding The River Stream Areas in Aceh

PROTOCOL: The effects of cannabis liberalization laws on health, safety, and socioeconomic outcomes: An evidence and gap map.

In Payment for Environmental Services (PES) systems, environmental service providers receive compensation for a conservationist action that implies the preservation of natural resources. The objective of this systematic mapping was to identify and discuss scientific articles that address the theme 'Payment for Environmental Services - PES for Waste Pickers Organizations', to understand the state of art of hiring these workers as environmental service providers. The study was developed using the method of systematic mapping of literature, from 2009 to 2019, considering qualitative and quantitative aspects. Results indicated that the countries that most investigate this theme are Brazil, China, India, and Indonesia. The articles portray the informal work of waste pickers, working conditions and the transition from informal systems to waste management in public services. The relationship between payment for environmental services and the work of waste pickers is not yet evident. Furthermore, research on PES and recycling are developed along distinct lines, without interdisciplinarity. However, PES shows itself as an important socio-environmental management tool that has the potential to solve relevant problems of recyclable waste management, because it presents congruent characteristics with the public procurement systems for waste pickers.

7 Executive summary 8 Background 8 Objectives 9 Selection criteria 9 Search strategy 9 Data collection and analysis 10 Results 10 Effects on Deforestation Outcomes 10 Effects on Human Welfare Outcomes 11 The Role of Institutional and Social Conditions 11 Authors’ conclusions 12 1 Background 13 1.1 Description of the problem 13 1.2 Description of the intervention 14 1.2.1 Description of PES 14 1.3 How the intervention might work 16 1.3.1 Main hypotheses 16 1.3.2 Unintended consequences and moderating factors for PES 18 1.3.3 Moderator hypotheses 19 1.4 Why it was important to do this review 20 2 Objectives 22 3 Selection Criteria 24 3.1 Participants 24 3.2 Interventions 24 3.3 Outcomes 25 3.4 Study Types 25 4 Search Strategy 27 4.1 Electronic searches 27

China's rural economic reforms radically altered land tenure in rural China. With the granting of land use rights and residual income rights to farming households between 1979 and 1983, agriculture shifted from a collective-based to a familybased system. Land was not privatized, however. Ownership remained "collective", with local officials, typically at the village level, exercising a major influence over the allocation of land and the way households could use land. The initial land allocations to families were typically based on household size, household labour supply, or both. The central government's policy was that these allocations were supposed to be for 15 years. In some villages, land use contracts have been respected; in other villages, however, local leaders have periodically redistributed land among households and have intervened throughout the reform period to determine how farmers are able to use the land. The initial reforms triggered an unprecedented acceleration of agricultural growth in China. From 1979 to 1984, the gross value of agricultural output increased in real terms at an annual rate of 7.6 per cent, and grain production rose by 4.9 per cent annually.' Empirical studies attribute a significant part of this increase to enhanced incentives, as farmers were able to keep the output and

Leaf litter decomposition is the key ecological process that determines the sustainability of managed forest ecosystems, however very few studies hitherto have investigated this process with respect to silvicultural management practices. The aims of the present study were to investigate the effects of forest management practices on leaf litter decomposition rates, nutrient dynamics (C, N, Mg, K, Ca, P) and the activity of ligninolytic enzymes. We approached these questions using a 473 day long litterbag experiment. We found that age-class beech and spruce forests (high forest management intensity) had significantly higher decomposition rates and nutrient release (most nutrients) than unmanaged deciduous forest reserves (P<0.05). The site with near-to-nature forest management (low forest management intensity) exhibited no significant differences in litter decomposition rate, C release, lignin decomposition, and C/N, lignin/N and ligninolytic enzyme patterns compared to the unmanaged deciduous forest reserves, but most nutrient dynamics examined in this study were significantly faster under such near-to-nature forest management practices. Analyzing the activities of ligninolytic enzymes provided evidence that different forest system management practices affect litter decomposition by changing microbial enzyme activities, at least over the investigated time frame of 473 days (laccase, P<0.0001; manganese peroxidase (MnP), P = 0.0260). Our results also indicate that lignin decomposition is the rate limiting step in leaf litter decomposition and that MnP is one of the key oxidative enzymes of litter degradation. We demonstrate here that forest system management practices can significantly affect important ecological processes and services such as decomposition and nutrient cycling.

Abstract. The application of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) as an economic instrument to promote conservation and poverty reduction goals is relatively young in the Philippines. One of the earlier applications of PES is on watershed services to support hydropower generation in the Cordilleras of Northern Philippines. This paper analyzes the implementation of PES in 'run-of- river' type hydropower generation in the indigenous communities of the Cordilleras. The study describes the characteristics of the PES scheme in two indigenous communities and identifies the institutional mechanisms that support markets for environmental services. Evidences of economic, social and environmental impacts are presented. Highlights of the study pinpoint the importance of ensuring that the design of PES interacts and harmonizes with the cultural setting and existing local resource management institutions. PES implementation must be calibrated to the pace of the changes and transformations taking place within the specific context of the indigenous community. This critical condition in the success of the PES scheme could emerge as inputs to best practices allowing PES to maximize its impacts in terms of both environmental and socio-economic outcomes.

The Effectiveness of Payments for Environmental Services

Pathways from the payment for ecosystem services program to ecological and socio-economic outcomes