Abstract
The search for a cost-effective, environmentally friendly and sustainable feedstock for biodiesel production has attracted attention among researchers. After frying, palm oil may become thermally degraded and unsuitable for consumption. In the current effort, neat palm oil (NPO), waste palm oil earlier utilized for frying fish and chips (WPOFC) and waste palm oil previously utilized to fry sausage and chips (WPOSC) were transesterified into waste palm oil methyl ester, namely, WPOMEFC and WPOMESC, respectively. The PO, WPOs and their ester derivatives were subjected to physicochemical properties, fatty acid (FA) compositions and 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. The thermal degradation, transesterification process and the foods the palm oil was used to fry affected the density, kinematic viscosity, acid value, pH, iodine value and FA profile of the samples. The outcome of the characterization reveals that the 1H and 13C NMR spectra of NPO, WPOFC and WPOSC show clear similarity, but NPO exhibits different intensities from that of the WPO samples. The absence of the peaks between δ 4.6 ppm and 5.0 ppm in the 1H NMR spectrum signifies the complete transformation of triglycerides in the WPO samples into biodiesel. The 13C NMR spectrum indicates the presence of ester carbonyl carbon (C=O) in WPOMEFC and WPOMESC, peculiar to ester, at a chemical shift ranging from 174.8 ppm to 174.9 ppm.
Highlights
Increased population, modernization, industrialization and urbanization have resulted in higher energy demand over the past few decades
At the end of the transesterification reaction, the waste palm oil (WPO) samples were converted into crude biodiesel
FAME samples are kept in an airtight glass vial for analysis
Summary
Modernization, industrialization and urbanization have resulted in higher energy demand over the past few decades. Emitted from energy-related activities increased from 30.4 billion metric tons (BMT) in 2010 to 31.5 BMT in 2020 (Figure 1) [1]. With the global energy demand predicted to increase by 19% between. Global biodiesel consumption increased from 294 thousand barrels of oil equivalent per day (mboe/d) in 2010 to 682 mboe/d in 2020 (Figure 1) [3]. Emissions from the consumption of fossil-based fuels increased from 16.5 gigatons of equivalent carbon dioxide (GtCO2 e) in 2010 to 18.6 GtCO2 e in 2018 [4]. To meet the increasing demand for biodiesel and reduce
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